고려전기 재추(宰樞)의 출신과 국정회의에서의 위상

박재우 ( Jae Woo Park ) 연세대학교 국학연구원 2015 동방학지 Vol.172 No.-

고려 정치제도사 연구는 고려를 귀족사회로보는 관점에서 연구를 진행해 왔고, 그래서 재추가 귀족의 대표적 존재이며 그들이 정치를 이끌어 갔으므로 왕권이 제약을 받았다고 이해해 왔다. 본 연구는 이러한 견해를 검토하려는 것이다. 고려의 재추는 중서문하성의 재신과 중추원의 추밀은 말한다. 그러므로 재신은 중서문하성의 관료로서, 추밀은 중추원의 관료로서 각각 독자적으로 업무를 수행하였다. 하지만 이들은 고려 관료제도에서 지위가 가장 높았으므로 議政에서 함께 활동할 여지가 있었다. 처음에는 재신과 추밀이 각각 議政에 참여하였으나 예종대부터 둘이 합쳐 재추로서 議政에 참여하였다. 이렇게 되면서 재추는 兩府, 大臣, 재상으로 불리면서 국정운영에서 비중이 더욱 높아졌다. 이러한 재추는 귀족의 대표적 존재로 알려져있으나 실제는 그렇지 않았다. 귀족은 신분적 혈연적으로 배타적 특권을 세습하면서 군주의 권력이나 관료제적 질서로부터 자율적인 위상을 구축하고 있는 존재이다. 그런데 골품제가 몰락한 이후에 성립한 고려에는 그러한 특권층이 없었다. 이른바 고려 귀족의 특권은 모두 관료로서 받는 특권이었고, 그러한 관료의 특권을 활용하여 누대에 걸쳐 재추를 배출하면 문벌이 되었다. 고려전기의 재추는 가계 내에서 본인이 처음으로 재추가 된 경우가 많았다. 그래서 국정회의에서 문벌출신 재추의 입장이 일방적으로 관철되지 못했다. 본인을 포함하여 2명 이상의 재추를 배출한 경우는 문벌의 영향력이 커지는 예종~의 종대에 숫자가 늘어났으나 그들이 국정회의를 주도한 것은 아니었다. 고려전기의 국정회의에는 재신회의, 輔臣회의, 式目都監使가 참여하는 회의, 群臣회의와 예종 이후에 생겨난 재추회의가 있었다. 이들 회의에서 재추가 문벌출신이라는 이유만으로 논의를 주도하고 그로 인해 국왕의 최종 결정권이 제약되는 경우는 없었다. 이러한 점은 예종 이후의 회의에서도 마찬가지였다. 그러므로 고려전기에 재추가 귀족의 대표적 존재이며 그들이 정치를 이끌었으므로 왕권이 제약을 받았다는 견해는 받아들이기 어렵다. Studies of Goryeo political institutions have held that aristocratic Jae/Chu (宰 樞) figures were at the helm of the nation``s general governance and seriously restricted the king``s leadership and power. This study examines the validity of this theory. Historically, aristocratic figures have usually held exclusive privileges according to their social rank and bloodline. Yet Goryeo featured no such privileged class. The ruling classes’ rights were bestowed upon them as vassals of the king, and they became Munbeol houses after producing prominent officials for several generations. In the first half of the Goryeo period, Jae/Chu figures`` voices carried a very limited amount of weight in official gatherings. Even in the middle of the Goryeo period, which witnessed the advent of several powerful Munbeol houses that produced more than a few Jae/Chu figures, their voices were still not strong enough to allow them to dominate the gatherings for discussions of dynastic governance. There was no instance of Jae/Chu figures being able to lead the discussions solely for being from Munbeol houses and restricting the king``s ultimate authority to issue a final decision. The situation was the same in the following years. The previous theory therefore needs to be reconsidered.

고려전기 대간의 운영 방식

박재우(Park, Jae-woo) 한국역사연구회 2012 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.86

In the Goryeo period, the institution of remonstration officers(Daegan 臺諫) were developed. The Daegwan(臺官) and Gangwan(諫官) monitored the behaviors of the king and the subjects, and were closely tied to each other, sharing some of their respective functions. But the Daegwan and Gangwan were also independent from each other. Either the Eosa-dae(御史臺) or the individual Daegwan performed their duties independently, and while sharing some of the functions of the Gangwan, they usually operated on their own. In the meantime, the Gangwan were part of the Secretariat-Chancellery(Jungseo Munha-seong 中書門下省), along with the Jaesin(宰臣) ministers. So, affiliated offices or Jaesin ministers led the Gangwan. But after king Sukjong s reign, the official body of the Gangwan came to be called as Ganweon(諫院), and they operated apart from the Jaesin ministers. This fashion of operation was modeled after the Dang and Song institutions, and as a result the level of the Gangwan independent nature was relatively heightened. The Gangwan conducted their own functions, and while sometimes sharing the functions of the Daegwan, they performed their own duties alone. The Daegwan and Gangwan combined into the Daegan in king Yejong. They together were asked about the state affairs and performed their duties, remonstrated in front of Hapmoon(閤門). So the institution of remonstration officers was operated briskly. The king Yejong combined the Jaesin and the Chumil(樞密) into the Jae-Chu to ask the problems of the Jurchen and made the Daegan to check the Jae-Chu. Thus He strengthened royal authority. Since then the Jae-Chu and the Daegan were more active.

지리산 반달가슴곰 상사리 입지와 조망 특성

유재심 ( Jae Shim Yu ),박종화 ( Chong Hwa Park ),우동걸 ( Dong Gul Woo ) 한국환경복원기술학회 2012 한국환경복원기술학회지 Vol.15 No.4

The objective of this study is to investigate the characteristics of the location and prospects of the bear shelves built by Asiatic black bears in the Jirisan National Park. Previous researchers have been analyzed bear shelves in terms of places for resting and eating, but we are going to analyze based on the prospect-and-refuge theory. Characteristics of the sites of bear shelves are measured through field survey and topographic analysis by using digital elevation model (DEM). The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is used to evaluate the optimum location of bear shelves in terms of crown density. Man-made objects are identified by viewshed analysis based on geographical information system (GIS). Findings of this paper can be summarized as follows. First, most bear trees are located deep inside of the mountainous national park, slopes of 30~40 degrees, altitude of 400~1,200m, and relatively low vegetation density with NDVI value of 0.4~0.6 compared to the average NDVI of the park. Second, the average height of bear shelves is 12.44m, or 74% of the average height of bear trees.They are located at suitable places to observe nearby trails and other park facilities. Third, man-made objects within the 100m radius of bear trees include lodge, bear training center, beekeeping camp, and hiking trails. Thus we may temporarily conclude that one of the main criteria of the bear tree selection in the park has been to identify optimum places for the monitoring of human activities in their habitat.

Low doses of ionizing radiation suppress doxorubicin-induced senescence-like phenotypes by activation of ERK1/2 and suppression of p38 kinase in MCF7 human breast cancer cells

신재식,우상혁,이형찬,홍승우,유두현,홍석일,이왕재,이명석,진영우,안성관,진동훈,박인철 Sookmyung Women's University Research Institute of 2010 여성과 건강 Vol.6 No.1

다제내성 그람양성균에 대한 Linezolid(Zyvox^(�))의 시험관내 항균력 비교

박대원,정희진,엄중식,황병연,김성범,이재갑,이연주,정혜원,정성주,박재형,이진수,손장욱,김우주,김민자,박승철 대한감염학회 2003 감염과 화학요법 Vol.35 No.5

배경 : MRSA, VRE, VRSA같은 다제 내성 그람 양성균의 등장에 따라 glycopeptide를 대체할 새로운 항생제의 개발이 필요하게 되었고 결과적으로 새로운 항생제인 linezolid라는 항생제가 개발되었다. Linezolid는 이전의 항생제와는 다른 새로운 계열의 oxazolidinone으로 경구 이용률이 우수하다. 원내 및 원외감염의 중요한 원인균이 되고 있는 MRSA, VRE에 대한 적절한 경구용 항균제가 없는 국내에서 폐렴 및 피부 연조직 감염에서 경구용으로 사용해 볼 수 있는 약제이다. 본 연구에서는 고대 구로 병원에서 분리된 MRSA, VRE 등을 대상으로 다른 여러 항균제와 비교한 linezolid의 시험관내 항균력을 조사하고자 하였다. 재료 및 방법 : 연구대상은 1998년 1월부터 2000년 12월까지 본원에서 입원 및 외래를 통하여 피부 연조직 감염증 및 호흡기 감염증, 요로감염증으로 진단된 환자들의 가검물로부터 분리된 MRSA 60균주, VRE 43균주, PRSP 25균주를 액체배지 또는 한천배지 희석법을 통하여 linezolid 및 기타 항균제에 대한 최소발육억제농도를 구하였다. 결과 : 실험에 사용한 S. aureus는 모두 MRSA였고 이들은 linezolid에 대해 MIC_(90) 2㎍/㎖(MIC 범위 1-2㎍/㎖), Enterococcus spp는 모두 VRE로 linezolid의 MIC_(90)은 2㎍/㎖로 MIC 범위는 1-4㎍/㎖였다. 한 개의 균주에서 MIC 4㎍/㎖로 중등도 감수성을 보였으나 MIC breakpoint가 (8㎍/㎖인 내성균주는 없고 모두 감수성을 보였다. S. pneumoniae의 경우 penicillin 내성이었고, linezolid MIC_(90) 1㎍/㎖ (MIC 범위 0.5-1㎍/㎖)로 전부 감수성을 보였다. 결론 : Linezolid는 MRSA를 위시한 VRE, PRSP 등의 다제 내성 그람 양성균에 대하여 우수한 시험관내 항균력을 보임을 알 수 있었다. Background : The emergence of multi-drug resistant Gram-positive cocci, such as MRSA, VRE, and VRSA, necessitated to develop new antibiotics, which could replace the glycopeptide. As a result, a new antibiotics named linezolid was developed. Linezolid is different line of oxazolidinones with a good oral bioavailability, compared to other antibiotics. Since appropriate oral antibiotics are not presently available for MRSA, which is a major cause of nosocomial and community acquired infections, the introduction of linezolid will have favorable effect on treatment of infections such as pneumonia or skin infections. In this study, we investigated the antibiotic effect of linezolid on MRSA and VRE isolated from patients who were treated in Korea University Guro Hospital. Material and Methods : By using broth microdilution and agar dilution method we measured minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) with sixty S. aureus, forty three Enterococcus spp., and twenty five S. pneumoniae isolates from patients who were diagnosed as skin, soft tissue, respiratory, and urinary infections in Korea University Guro Hospital from January, 1998 to December, 2002. Results : All of S. aureus used in this study were MRSA, and MIG_(90) of linezolid was below 2 ㎍/㎖ (MIC ranged between 1-2 ㎍/㎖). All of Enterococcus spp. were VRE, and had MIG_(90) of 2 ㎍/㎖ (MIC ranged between 1 to 4 ㎍/㎖). One of the VRE showed intermediate susceptibility with MIC of 4 ㎍/㎖. However, none was resistant with MIC breakpoint above 8 ㎍/㎖. All of S. pneumoniae were resistant to penicillin, but they were susceptible to linezolid with MICao of 1 ㎍/㎖(MIC range 0.5-1㎍/㎖). Conclusion : In conclusions, linezolid has an excellent in vitro antibiotic effect on multi-drug resistant Gram-positive cocci, such as MRSA, PRSP, and VRE.

Park's Vector 기법을 이용한 소형 3상 유도 전동기의 권선 고장 진단

한민관(Min-kwan Han),우혁재(Hyeok-jae Woo),송명현(Myung-hyun Song),박규남(Kyu-nam Park) 대한전기학회 2003 대한전기학회 학술대회 논문집 Vol.2003 No.7

Low doses of ionizing radiation suppress doxorubicin-induced senescence-like phenotypes by activation of ERK1/2 and suppression of p38 kinase in MCF7 human breast cancer cells

신재식,우상혁,이형찬,홍승우,유두현,홍석일,이왕재,이명석,진영우,안성관,진동훈,박인철 Sookmyung Women's University Research Institute of 2010 여성과 건강 Vol.6 No.1

서울의 Penicillinase Producing Neisseria Gonorrhoeae 발생빈도(1996)

김재홍,황동규,전재홍,김윤석,김중환,김용준,이창균,임동진,김현수,조창근,김경문,박상훈,전우형,김희성,이호정,차명수,김갑형,김형석,김석우,황지환,박병순,권오상,이민수,송기훈,성소영,이인섭,부태성 대한화학요법학회 1999 대한화학요법학회지 Vol.17 No.2

Background : In recent years, gonorrhea has been panedemic and remains one of the most commom STDs in the world, especially in developing countries. Objective & Methods: For the detection of a more effective therapeutic regimen and assessing the prevalence of PPNG, we have been trying to study the patients who have visited the VD Clinic of Choong-Ku Public Health Center in Seoul since 1980 by means of the chromogenic cephalosporin method. Results: In 1996, 139 strains of N. gonorrhoeae were isolated, among which 53(39.0%) were PPNG. Conclusion: Our results suggests that after a peak of 74.3% in 1993, the prevalence of PPNG in Seoul is gradually declining.

서울의 Penicillinase Producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae 발생빈도(1998)

김재홍,김준호,반재용,이정우,황성주,정준규,정성태,강진문,조흔정,홍창의,정혜신,이한승,김이선,이봉길,이종호,선영우,한기덕,윤성필,이성훈,안종성,박석범,문승현,조항래,김형섭,류지호,황재영,박준홍,손상욱 한양대학교 의과대학 2001 한양의대 학술지 Vol.21 No.1

In recent years, gonorrhea has been pandemic and remains one of the most common STDs in the world, especially in developing countries. For the detection of a more effective therapeutic regimen and assessing the prevalence of Penicillinase Producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae(PPNG), we have been trying to study the patients who have visited the Venereal Disease Clinic of Choong-Ku Public Health Center in Seoul since 1980 by menas of the chromogenic cephalosporin method. In 1998, 93 strians of N. genorrhoeae were isolated, among which 60(64.5%) were PPNG. The prevalence of PPNG in Seoul, which had been decreased to 39% in 1996 after a peak of 74.3% in 1993, is increased to 64.5% in 1998.

북한산국립공원의 계류수질 보전 전략(I)

박재현,우보명,김우룡,안현철,조현서,추갑철,김춘식,최형태,Park, Jae-Hyeon,Woo, Bo-Myeong,Kim, Oue-Ryong,Ahn, Hyun-Chul,Cho, Hyun-Seo,Choo, Gab-Chul,Kim, Choon-Sig,Choi, Hyung-Tae 한국환경복원기술학회 2001 한국환경복원기술학회지 Vol.4 No.3

This study was conducted to investigate physicochemical property changes from July 1998 to August 2001 in Mt. Bukhansan National Park. Four water sampling points were selected to measure the quality of stream water in the northeastern part of the Mt. Bukhansan National Park. The results were summarized as follows; In spring, the average pH of stream water was below the first class of the river water quality standard, while it was normal level in summer. The average electrical conductivity was about 2.3~3.3 times higher in downstream water than in upstream water during spring and summer. The contents of anions($Cl^-$, $NO{_3}^-$, $SO{_4}^{2-}$) were about 1.1~7.4 and 0.4~11.4 times higher in downstream than in upstream water, respectively. These results indicate that water quality was poorer in downstream than in upstream water. We suggest that stream water in the Mt. Bukhansan National Park should be protected from impacts of snow melting mineral particles in spring season and human impacts like wastewater of point source in summer season.