Smallpox, Numeric Data, and Calculating Risk in Colonial Boston, 1720s∼1750s

이현주 한국미국사학회 2016 미국사연구 Vol.44 No.-

By the early eighteenth century, quantification had been integrated as a useful method for analyzing medical questions in England and America. After the introduction of smallpox inoculation in the early 1720s, physicians and intellectuals assessed smallpox and inoculation data. This article explores how numeric data and quantitative analysis were used in the discussion of smallpox and inoculation during the several decades following the introduction of inoculation. It focuses on Boston, the historic site where inoculation unfolded for the first time in American history. Bostonians quantified the mortalities of community-acquired smallpox and inoculated smallpox. They defended inoculation, arguing that it was less risky than natural exposure. In a nutshell, this argument based on risk calculation did not convince everyone. Statistical data show that by the 1764 epidemic, the proportion of the inoculated to the entire population was quite low. Reports in local newspapers also proved that fear of inoculation persisted, and supporters of inoculation were not able to quell the outcry from anti-inoculators. Furthermore, the Boston public health authority resisted embracing inoculation as an ordinary medical practice. In spite of these limitations, assessment of numeric data reached to population levels in 1752. The compiled data helped Bostonians examine their current practice of inoculation from a new perspective. Analyzing and discussing numbers enabled them to ask meaningful questions about the management of inoculation in practice and differences in environmental practice settings.

Public Health and the Emergence of New Clinical Settings for Smallpox Inoculation in Boston, 1753 to 1764

이현주 한국미국사학회 2016 미국사연구 Vol.43 No.-

This article explores the relationship between Boston’s public health policy and law and changes in the practice of smallpox inoculation from 1753 up to the 1764 smallpox epidemic. In concentrating on the lack of change in public health policy and methodological development, historians have dismissed the importance of nearly a decade of these inter-epidemic interval years and the changes that did occur during the 1764 epidemic. This study attempts to examine how inoculation hospitals were adopted in Boston and how these new clinical settings influenced the change of inoculation practices. In delving into these questions, this article will have focused examination on the following three points: First, this study examines the transformation of inoculation sites from private spaces to public spaces. It argues that the public profile of inoculation was important in stimulating physicians’ and patients’ comparisons of different inoculation methods and treatment. Secondly, it shows that Boston’s public health decisions were not necessarily an accurate manifestation of individual decisions. Despite the town’s collective decision for rigid regulation of inoculation methods and rejection of the proactive use of inoculation technology, the majority of Bostonians welcomed smallpox inoculation. Thirdly, it hopes to connect local medical history to a larger political context; it argues that the French and Indian War and the emergence of revolutionary conflict between American colonies and Britain partly impacted the dynamic tension in Boston between public health concerns, private practice, inoculation technologies, and inoculation hospitals.

정상 면역 생쥐에 접종된 암세포주의 종괴 형성이 숙주의 지연성과민반응에 미치는 영향

임현자,우아미,정영주,강재승,신동훈,이왕재,황영일,Lim, Hyun-Ja,Woo, A-Mi,Jung, Young-Ju,Kang, Jae-Seung,Shin, Dong-Hoon,Lee, Wang-Jae,Hwang, Young-Il 대한면역학회 2006 Immune Network Vol.6 No.4

Background: Based on outstanding progresses in animal experiments, vaccines for some human tumors have been developed. However, clinical effects of these vaccines have been far below than expected. This discrepancy might come from differences between animal models and human patients with respect to immunocompetency. The immune status of mice after tumor inoculation has not been well studied, which make us cautious in interpreting and applying the results from mice to human. We evaluated cell-mediated immune responses in mice after tumor cell inoculation. Methods: Mice were inoculated with TA3Ha, CT26, or 4T1. Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses were induced 2-4 weeks after inoculation using 2,4-dinitro-1-fluorobenzene as an antigen. The relationships between the severity of DTH responses and the duration of tumor inoculation or the size of tumor mass were analyzed. Results: In T A3Ha groups, DTH response was elevated 2 weeks after inoculation, but depressed after 4 weeks, compared to the control group. When analyzed based on the sizes of tumor masses elicited, DTH responses were inversely related to the mass size, especially in those greater than 10 mm in diameter. In CT26 groups, while the duration after inoculation did not affect the severity of DTH responses, those with large mass showed depressed responses regardless the duration of inoculation. 4T1 cells grew so slowly that the size of tumor mass was small even 4 weeks after inoculation, and this group showed much higher DTH responses compared to that of tumor-free group. Conclusion: At least in an experimental setting where tumor model was induced by inoculating tumor cell lines into immunologically competent mice, the host immune response was elevated in early stage, and then depressed in late stage when the mass grew over a critical size.

혈액배양 검체 접종을 위한 Previ Isola® 시스템과 수기법의 비교평가

박영춘,윤진상,김지명,권계철,구선회 대한진단검사의학회 2016 Laboratory Medicine Online Vol.6 No.1

Background: Recently, a new automated inoculating instrument, Previ Isola® (bioMérieux, France) was introduced. Although there are many evaluation reports about the inoculation of urine and body fluid samples using Previ Isola®, no evaluation has been reported for blood samples. The objectives of this study were to evaluate this instrument for the inoculation of blood samples and to compare the microbiological results with the manual loop-to-plate method. Methods: From March 2014 to July 2014, a total of 296 non-duplicate blood samples showing positive signals on the BacT/Alert 3D system were obtained, and both manual and automated methods were used for sample inoculation. Results of the two methods were compared according to five aspects: the culture result, number of single colonies, morphology of colonies, number of re-inoculations, and time required for inoculation. Results: The sensitivity and specificity of Previ Isola® were 98.9% and 96.6%, respectively. The positive and negative predictive values were 99.6% and 90.3%, respectively, and the total concordance rate was 98.6%. For Previ Isola® and the manual methods, the number of average usable single colonies per plate was 25 and 16, the number of re-inoculations was 60 and 62, and the inoculation time for 15 blood samples was 30 min and 75 min, respectively. The morphology of colonies showed no differences between the two methods. Conclusions: The automated inoculation instrument, Previ Isola®, showed relative good concordance with manual method, with high sensitivity and high specificity for blood sample inoculation. Previ Isola® may be useful for inoculating specimens including blood samples. 배경: 최근 임상미생물 검사실에 검체의 접종 업무를 자동으로 수행하는 Previ Isola® (Bio-merieux, France)가 소개되었다. Previ Isola® 장비의 체액과 요검체 자동접종에서의 유용성에 대한 평가는 있으나 아직까지 혈액 검체 자동접종의 유용성에 대해서는 평가가 이루어지지 않은 실정이다. 이번 연구에서는 혈액 검체를 자동접종함에 있어서 수기법과 비교하여 그 유용성을 평가하였다. 방법: 2014년 3월부터 7월까지 임상미생물검사실에 혈액배양이 의뢰된 검체 중 BacT/Alert 3D system (bioMerieux Inc., USA)에서 양성 신호를 보인 중복되지 않는 296명 환자의 혈액 검체를 임의로 선택하였다. 수기법과 자동화 장비법으로 혈액 검체가 접종된 평판배지들은 동시에 판독하여 배양결과, 단독 집락수, 집락 성상, 재접종 여부, 접종소요시간 등 다섯 가지 항목에 대하여 기록하고 비교 평가하였다. 결과: 자동화 방법의 민감도와 특이도는 각각 98.9%와 96.6%였고 양성예측도와 음성예측도는 각각 99.6%와 90.3%였고 전체 일치도는 98.6%였다. 단독 집락 수는 자동접종법에서 매 평판배지당 평균 25개로 수기법(16개) 보다 9개가 많았고, 집락의 성상은 차이를 보이지 않았다. 재접종이 필요한 경우는 자동화 장비법(60건)이 수기법(62건)과 비슷하였고 접종 소요 시간은 15개 검체를 기준으로 자동화 장비법(30분)이 수기법(75분)보다 단축되었다. 결론: 자동화 장비 Previ Isola®는 수기법과의 일치도가 98.6%로 비교적 우수하였고, 높은 민감도와 특이도를 보였으므로 혈액 검체 자동접종에 유용하게 사용될 수 있을 것으로 판단되었다.

18세기 초 인두접종 지식과 기술 도입 다시보기: 런던과 보스턴을 중심으로

이현주 의료역사연구회 2023 의료사회사연구 Vol.11 No.-

London and Boston were inarguably the two most important centers in the early history of smallpox inoculation in the West. Moving from simple to complex, this article reexamines the conventional story of the adoption of smallpox inoculation, diving more deeply into the knowledge of early experimenters and their practice of the technology. Before the introduction of smallpox inoculation in London by the famous Lady Mary Montagu and Dr. Charles Maitland and in Boston by Rev. Cotton Matter and Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, knowledge of the practice had already circulated in the transatlantic world by word of mouth. Information about the methods and techniques of inoculation was inconsistent and complex, but early experimenters did not exclude such methods, which were later considered to be non-Western in style. Surgical tools and inoculation methods were transformed through practice, and imperfection in written knowledge and technical complexity at the practical level were ingrained from the very beginning of the history of smallpox inoculation. 런던과 보스턴은 의심할 여지없이 서양의 초기 인두법(smallpox inoculation)의 역사에서 가장 중요한 두 중심지였다. 이 논문은 인두법의 채택에 대한 기존의 연구를 지식과 기술이라는 측면에서 재검토한다. 초기 런던과 보스턴에 알려진 인두법 지식과 인두법의 실제에 대해 더 깊이 파고드는 것을 통해 이 글은 초기 인두법 기술이 우리가 알고 있는 것보다 복잡한 과정을 거쳐 정착되었음을밝힌다. 유명한 레이디 메리 몬태규(Lady Mary Montagu, 1689-1762)와 찰스 메이틀런드 의사(Dr. Charles Maitland, 1668-1748)가 런던에서, 그리고 코튼 매더 목사(Rev. Cotton Mather, 1663-1728)와 자브디엘 보일스턴 의사(Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, 1676-1766)가 보스턴에서 인두 접종을 시도하기 전에 횡대서양 세계에는 인두법에 대한 지식이 이미 퍼져있었다. 이러한 정보는 무역과 인적 이동, 그리고 지 식 네트워크를 타고 입소문과 문헌을 통해 런던과 보스턴에 전해졌다. 그러나 이 시기 인두 접종 기술에 대한 묘사는 그 기원과 방법에 대해 다양하게 서술하고 있어 일관성이 부족했고 기술 재현에 필요한 충분한 정보를 포함하고 있지 못해 구체성이 떨어졌다. 더불어 네트워크 접근성에 따라 얻을 수 있는 정보의 양과 질에도 차이가 있었다. 인두법은 런던과 보스턴에 두창이 유행했던 1721년과 1722년 사이에 처음으로 실행될 수 있었다. 그러나 실험적일 수밖에 없었던 초기 인두법의 역사에서 두 도시의 인두법 선구자들은 후일에는 비서구적 스타일로 간주되는 인두 접종 방식도 배제하지 않았다. 또한 이들에게 전해진 지식이 인두 접종의 세부 사항에 대한 궁금증을 해소하기에는 불완전했기 때문에 인두 접종 방법과 도구는 거듭된 실행과 경험을 통해 변형되었다.

Selection of Resistant Hybrids of Atractylis Against Phytophthora drechsleri

Kim, Dong-Kil,Shim, Chang-Ki,Kim, Hee-Kyu The Korean Society of Plant Pathology 2001 Plant Pathology Journal Vol.17 No.4

Bioassay techniques using young leaves and roots were developed to screen resistance of Atractylis spp. against Phytophthora drechsleri. Among 638 plants collected from various regions of Korea from 1994 to 1996, 67 were pre-screened in fields naturally infested with P. drechsleri, which is the causal pathogen of rhizome rot of Atractylis. Among the pre-screened sources, 18 (ca. 26.8%) were highly resistant to the pathogen in leaf inoculation. In the root inoculation test, abundant sporangia were formed in susceptible plant roots, while only a few or no sporangia were produced on the roots which were found resistant in the leaf inoculation test. Among the selected resistant plants, A. japonica 96066 and 96104 were used to cross with another species, A. macrocephala 96362 that showed high yield with good quality of rhizome but susceptible to the pathogen. The F$_1$hybrids designated as HA03 turned out to be resistant to the pathogen, indicating that resistant gene(s) was inherited. Among intra-species hybrids of A. japonica, HA07 and HA09 were resistant to the pathogen in leaf inoculation and moderate in root inoculation. However, HA08 was susceptible in both inoculation tests. This result suggests that the parent material might be genetically heterogeneous. Further genetic study should be carried out to verify this phenomenon.

Effect of Dispersed and Proximate Inoculation Methods of Glomus etunicatum on Root Colonization of Sorghum-Sudangrass Hybrid

Seonmi Lee,Gopal Selvakumar,Ramasamy Krishnamoorthy,Kiyoon Kim,Joonho Choi,Tongmin Sa 한국토양비료학회 2013 한국토양비료학회지 Vol.46 No.5

Information on the effective application method of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculum is still inadequate. This work was performed to assess two AMF inoculation methods (dispersed and proximate) on root colonization of sorghum- sudangrass hybrid (Sorghum bicolor L.). In dispersed inoculation method, spores were inoculated in 2 kg pots of soil in which 5 day-old seedlings were transplanted and maintained for 50 days. In the proximate inoculation method, spores were first introduced in 500 mL pots where seeds were sown. After 10 days, the seedlings with the 500 mL soil were transferred to 2 kg pots without disturbing the contents. After 50 days of growth, root colonization and arbuscule abundance significantly increased (over 100%) in proximate method of inoculation. Moreover, sorghum-sudangrass hybrid had higher shoot growth (182.5 cm) and Glomalin related soil protein (GRSP) production in proximate method. Nutrient accumulation, particularly total nitrogen (82.61 mg plant-1), was also found to be higher in proximate method of inoculation. Our results demonstrate that the proximate method of inoculation may improve the early stage mycorrhizal symbiosis and inoculum performance in Saemangeum reclaimed soil.

Effect of Dispersed and Proximate Inoculation Methods of Glomus etunicatum on Root Colonization of Sorghum-Sudangrass Hybrid

Lee, Seonmi,Selvakumar, Gopal,Krishnamoorthy, Ramasamy,Kim, Kiyoon,Choi, Joonho,Sa, Tongmin Korean Society of Soil Science and Fertilizer 2013 한국토양비료학회지 Vol.46 No.5

Information on the effective application method of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculum is still inadequate. This work was performed to assess two AMF inoculation methods (dispersed and proximate) on root colonization of sorghum-sudangrass hybrid (Sorghum bicolor L.). In dispersed inoculation method, spores were inoculated in 2 kg pots of soil in which 5 day-old seedlings were transplanted and maintained for 50 days. In the proximate inoculation method, spores were first introduced in 500 mL pots where seeds were sown. After 10 days, the seedlings with the 500 mL soil were transferred to 2 kg pots without disturbing the contents. After 50 days of growth, root colonization and arbuscule abundance significantly increased (over 100%) in proximate method of inoculation. Moreover, sorghum-sudangrass hybrid had higher shoot growth (182.5 cm) and Glomalin related soil protein (GRSP) production in proximate method. Nutrient accumulation, particularly total nitrogen (82.61 mg $plant^{-1}$), was also found to be higher in proximate method of inoculation. Our results demonstrate that the proximate method of inoculation may improve the early stage mycorrhizal symbiosis and inoculum performance in Saemangeum reclaimed soil.

Establishment and evaluation of the VX2 orthotopic lung cancer rabbit model: a ultra-minimal invasive percutaneous puncture inoculation method

Wang, Lijuan,Che, Keke,Liu, Zhonghong,Huang, Xianlong,Xiang, Shifeng,Zhu, Fei,Yu, Yu The Korean Society of Pharmacology 2018 The Korean Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology Vol.22 No.3

The purpose of the present work is to establish an ultra-minimal invasive percutaneous puncture inoculation method for a VX2 orthotopic lung cancer rabbit model with fewer technical difficulties, lower mortality of rabbits, a higher success rate and a shorter operation time, to evaluate the growth, metastasis and apoptosis of tumor by CT scans, necropsy, histological examination, flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. The average inoculation time was 10-15 min per rabbit. The tumorbearing rate was 100%. More than 90% of the tumor-bearing rabbits showed local solitary tumor with 2-10 mm diameters after two weeks post-inoculation, and the rate of chest seeding was only 8.3% (2/24). The tumors diameters increased to 4-16 mm, and irregularly short thorns were observed 3 weeks after inoculation. Five weeks post-inoculation, the liquefaction necrosis and a cavity developed, and the size of tumor grew further. Before natural death, the CT images showed that the tumors spread to the chest. The flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry indicated that there was less apoptosis in VX2 orthotopic lung cancer rabbit model compared to chemotherapy drug treatment group. Minimal invasive percutaneous puncture inoculation is an easy, fast and accurate method to establish the VX2 orthotopic lung cancer rabbit model, an ideal in situ tumor model similar to human malignant tumor growth.

수박 덩굴쪼김병에 대한 간편 저항성 검정법 확립

조은주,최용호,장경수,김헌,최경자,Jo, Eun Ju,Choi, Yong Ho,Jang, Kyoung Soo,Kim, Hun,Choi, Gyung Ja 한국식물병리학회 2017 식물병연구 Vol.23 No.2

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum에 의해 발생하는 수박의 덩굴쪼김병 저항성을 검정하기 위해 뿌리 침지 접종 방법이 많이 사용되어 왔다. 이 방법은 정확한 저항성 검정 결과를 제공하나 많은 노동력과 시간이 소요되어 보다 빠르고 효율적인 검정 방법이 요구되어 왔다. 본 연구에서 수박 덩굴쪼김병의 간편한 대량 저항성 검정법을 확립하기 위해 저항성 및 감수성 4개 품종의 유묘에 F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum을 네 가지 접종 방법(뿌리 침지, scalpel, tip 및 무상처 토양 관주법)으로 접종하고 덩굴쪼김병 발생을 조사하였다. 이들 중 scalpel 접종 방법은 실험 방법이 간단하고 정확한 저항성 반응을 보였다. 우리는 scalpel 접종 방법을 이용하여 수박의 생육 시기, 접종원 농도 및 접종 후 재배 온도 등의 발병 조건에 따른 위의 품종들의 덩굴쪼김병에 대한 저항성 반응을 조사하였다. 그리고 이들 결과로부터 확립한 scalpel 방법의 효용성은 시판 품종 23개의 덩굴쪼김병균에 대한 저항성 정도를 뿌리침지 방법과 비교하여 확인하였다. 이상의 결과를 종합하여 수박 덩굴쪼김병에 대한 간편 대량 저항성 검정 방법으로 수박 종자를 파종하여 온실에서 10-13일 동안 재배한 수박 유묘의 뿌리를 scalpel을 이용하여 상처를 준 후에 $3.0{\times}10^6\;conidia/ml$의 포자현탁액을 포트당 10 ml씩 관주하고 $25^{\circ}C$에서 하루에 12시간씩 광을 조사하면서 약 4주 동안 재배하는 것을 제안하고자 한다. Root-dipping inoculation method has been widely used to determine the resistance of watermelon to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum causing Fusarium wilt. Although this method leads to the precise results of plant disease responses, more rapid and efficient assay methods have been still required because the root-dipping inoculation method is labor-intensive and time-consuming. In this study, we established a simple and effective bioassay method based on the comparison of various inoculation methods and growth conditions. To develop the system, the occurrence of Fusarium wilt on four resistant and susceptible cultivars was investigated by four different inoculation methods, root-dipping, scalpel, tip and soil-drenching methods. Of these inoculation methods, scalpel method resulted in clear plant disease resistance responses with the simplicity. With the use of scalpel method, we also explored the disease development of the cultivars depending on inoculum concentration, growth stage of seedlings, and incubation temperature after inoculation. Furthermore, we found that the resistance degrees of 23 cultivars derived by scalpel inoculation method were similar to the results by root-dipping method established previously.