朝鮮時代 白瓷 工房의 種類와 性格 : Types and Characteristics

장남원 용인대학교 박물관 2004 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.8

A systematic exploration of the structures, scales, and working processes of the white porcelain works may give answers to the questions on various changes in making of the white porcelain. The works, where most of the processes are done from the refining of original materials to the glaze on the product, could be an important index to show the quality producing techniques of the white porcelain. It can be safely said that the works sites and products in the kiln sites tell us the general characteristics of the White Porcelain in Joseon(朝鮮) Dynasty as follows: First of all, most works sites in kilns seemed to have the facilities to refine and mix clays, store clays and glaze, shape, decorate, and glaze the porcelains; there seemed to be 2 to 5 works sites to a kiln. It could be varied according to their types and products, but the kilns usually had site complex for storage and refinement, a small-sized firing site, and a hypocaust installation. Sometimes they had individual kilns but shared the workshops nonetheless. Secondly, workshops were located 10~30 meters from the kilns, generally in front of the kilns or at the sides of them. Workshops were at the lower level than the kilns, and they were built around the side exits of the kilns, with some geographical exceptions. Conclusively it could be implied that the location of the workshops was related to the working courses for stacking in kilns. Third, works were founded on the hardened earth and consisted of the earth, while the apparatus and temporary facilities used wood. Fourth, remodelling of the works of moving of the kilns seemed to have taken place during the leisurely times with no regular schedule, which was usually between July and August, or November and December on the lunar calendar. Fifth, there were relatively a large pile of refinement wastes around the works, and the refining process took much space in the works. Works were strategically located neat the valleys, which was to make the advantage of the water supply for the refining process. Especially the local kilns had a lot of refining facilities in works sites such as Seungju Hukok-ri, Suncheon Munkil-ri, Muan Piseo-ri, Jangseong Suok-ri, and Cheongyang Daebak-ri, where potters mined the local clay to refine and produce on site. Sixth, there were some differences in the works of the Kwangju(廣州) official kilns(官窯) and local kilns. We cannot generalize hastily with the established data, of course, but until now there has not been any pit or facility for refining process in Kwangju kilns. It is contrasted with many piles of refinement wastes and a lot of storage pits in local kilns for white porcelain. It might be partly related to the fact that official kilns had a supply of good quality clay all over the country to produce the best white porcelains. Namely, Kwaungju kilns had refined clay delivered; therefore the kilns did not have to install the refining process facilities.

고려시대 陶瓷의 연구현황과 과제

장남원 중부고고학회 2006 서울경기고고학회 학술발표회 Vol.2006 No.5

고려시대 청자 투합(套盒)의 용도와 조형 계통

장남원 미술사와 시각문화학회 2010 미술사와 시각문화 Vol.9 No.-

이 글은 12세기 전반경 고려에 새로 등장하는 기물 가운데 청자 투합을 중심으로 그 용도와 조형 계통을 추론해 본 것이다. 투합은 당대 이래 왕릉이나 공적인 제사의례 공간등에서 의례용 진설기로 사용되었으며 특히 오대-송시기를 거치면서 관요나 공요(貢窯)에서 주로 제작된다. 고려에서도 인종장릉과 월출산의 제사유적등 왕실 및 공적인 예제의 공간에서 발견되며, 고려시기 가장 고급자기를 구웠던 강진의 사당리 요지에서만 제작되었다. 이를 통해 중국의 의례와 의례용 기물제도가 고려에 전해졌다고 보았으며 그 가운데 투합은 북송대 여요(汝窯)와 가장 밀접한 관계가 있었다. 이 과정에서 이미 중국 여러지역의 기물이 유입되어 사용되면서도 굳이 북송대 관요풍의 기물을 수용한데 대해 고려 인종대 특수한 정치적 상황과 결부시켜 새로운 질서와 권위의 표상화 과정과 관계가 있을 것으로 해석하였다. Around the early 12th century when the ceramic industry of Goryeo enters a period of stability and there is a smooth supply of royal ceramics centered around Gangjin, a new form of ceramics emerge during the Goryeo dynasty. It is especially true when looking at the types of unearthed artifacts at ‘Jang Neung(長陵)," the tomb of Goryeo King Injong who held his funeral in 1146. A new form of celadon that was unseen before such as melon-shaped vases, cups with chrysanthemum petal patterns, bowls with a lid, and stackable side-dish box set makes its appearance. Whereas cups or bowls is a type of ceramics used in daily living, melon-shaped vases or stackable side-dish box set have almost never been discovered at normal remains of daily life and is very rare even at kiln sites. Especially, celadon stackable side-dish box set have never been produced during the early and late Goryeo period. Besides the Tomb of King Injong, the places where stackable side-dish box set was discovered include Mt. Wolchul at Yeongam, Jeollanam province. This place was a site where memorial services for ancestors were held to the mountains and streams under the supervision of the government during the Goryeo period. As a result of surveys conducted on the style and types of articles discovered along with stackable side-dish box set, its potential production site is suspected to be around the Sadang-ri area of Gangjin, Jeollanam province. This was a place where fine quality celadons were made and paid as a tribute to the government from the early to late Goryeo period. There are various forms of stackable side-dish box set from China and Goryeo according to its form including circular type, tetragonal type, and pentagonal type. In Korea, only instances produced as celadons during the Goryeo period waspassed down. It has been known as an article used for placing something on top of it as it was called ‘Banghyeongdae’(方形臺, square support), ‘Banghyeonggi’(方形器, square bowl), ‘Daejwa’(臺座, support), ‘Cheoksikhap’疊式盒(stackable side-dish box), ‘Tuhap’套盒(stackable side-dish box set). In China, it was produced with silver since the Tang dynasty, and square-shaped stackable side-dish box set was already being produced in Yueh Yao(越州窯) eand Yao Zhou Yao(耀州窯) during the Five Dynasties in the 10th Century. The celadons were produced in various forms in places such as Lu-yao(汝窯) and Nansung Guan yao(南宋官窯) after going through the Northern Sung(宋) and Southern Sung dynasty, and it was also produced and used even in Northern Liao(遼) area. These kiln sites were important official kilns or places where ceramics for tributary payments were made during the period from the Five Dynasty to the Song Dynasty. In fact, the remains where stackable side-dish box set was discovered were official places of the government such as royal tombs, Emperor's tombs, and ancestral shrines. In these places, it was used as containers for putting light refreshments during ceremonies such as tea ceremonies. Goryeo stackable side-dish box set was closely related to presumed to be the official kilns of Northern Song Dynasty. The fact that these articles were passed on to Goryeo means the Chinese ceremony and ceremonial article system had been introduced to Goryeo. Although the diplomatic relationship between Goryeo and Song was restored at the end of the 11th Century, the Khitans and the Jurchens were confronting each other in the northern region, and Goryeo had to prepare for conquering the Jurchens. Therefore, it is presumed that Chinese culture and system were fully introduced during the reign of King Yejong in the early 12th Century. Especially, during the reign of King Injong(1122-1146), the royal authority was strongly challenged by the outbreak of the Coup of Yi Ja-gyeom(1126) and Myo Cheong's Rebellion, and even the King's authority was threatened due to the burning of the royal palace. Thus, in order to establish the soverign authority of the king and strengthen the royal authority, King Injong quickly carried out reforms. During this period in Goryeo, various celadons and white porcelain from Northern and Southern China were already introduced through private trade and were being used by the royal family and civilians. Therefore, by selectively bringing in the ceremonial containers(禮器) from Northern Song and modifying the article system, the King must have tried to display new order and authority. It seems this situation could have served as the opportunity for newly producing ceremonial containers such as Northern Sung official kiln type stackable side-dish box set.

필사본 『고려도경(高麗圖經)』의 유포와 의의

장남원 이화여자대학교 한국문화연구원 2009 한국문화연구 Vol.17 No.-

이 논문은 조선후기에 제작된 『고려도경』 필사본의 몇 예를 중심으로 세부적인 특징과 함께 고려를 이해하는 텍스트로서 어떻게 소장되고 읽혀졌으며 활용되었는지에 대해 살펴본 것이다. 그 대상은 이화여대도서관, 고려대도서관, 서울대 규장각 등이 소장하고 있었던 『고려도경』의 서로 다른 3가지 필사본이다. 활자 인쇄본 자료의 제작과 유통이 원활치 못했던 조선후기, 중국으로부터 급격하게 전래되었던 많은 사서와 문학서적, 지리서, 백과서적 등은 특히 관료 사대부 및 문인 계층을 중심으로 유포되었던 것으로 보인다. 이 때 활자본 외에 많이 활용되었던 방식이 필사본의 제작이다. 고려 이후 조선중기까지도 국내에서 별로 활용되지 않았던 것으로 보이는 『고려도경』은 18세기 이후 여러 문인의 문집에서 그 이름과 내용에 대한 설명들이 발견되며, 새롭게 씌어진 고려 관련 역사서들에서도 인용되는 것을 볼 수 있다. 서로 다른 『고려도경』 필사본들의 존재는 앞서 살펴 본 조선후기 문인들의 독서 경향과 고려에 대한 지식 정보에 대해 시사하는 바가 크다. 더욱이 19세기 이후 증대되는 『고려도경』에 대한 독후감이나 장서목록의 작성, 필사본의 제작과 유통은 조선후기에 고려를 바라보는 중요한 텍스트로서의 가치를 지닌다고 본다. 고려사는 조선의 지배층이 만든 역사이다. 고려사는 조선 건국 후 100여 년이 흐른 뒤에야 조선의 사대부들에게 유통되면서 재구성된다. 처음 고려사가 저술되었을 당시 고려사의 기억과 실제의 기억이 충돌하며 경합하였지만, 시간이 흐른 뒤 고려사의 기록은 사대부들의 기억을 지배하기 시작하였고, ‘정전’과 같은 위상을 가지게 되면서 ‘문화적 기억’의 터가 되었다. 이 때 고려 관련 사서와 문집 등이 주요했다면, 『고려도경』은 빼 놓을 수 없는 자료였을 것이다. 『고려도경』에 기재된 고려에 대한 여러 가지 정보들은 반복·지속적으로 고려에 대한 정형화된 관점을 형성하는데 작용했을 가능성이 높다. 즉, 18세기 이후부터 고려에 대한 새로운 역사서들이 출간되고 특히 『고려도경』을 비롯한 고려에 대한 역사서나 문집 등이 다시 읽히고 필사·수장되는 과정에서 고려에 대한 정보가 축적되면서 고려에 대한 이해를 형성하는 데 기여했을 것이라고 본다. Gaolitujing(高麗圖經) is the book written by Xu Jing, a scholar diplomat, who recorded a itinerary of envoy of Northern song in 1123, and devoted it to their emperor Huizong(徽宗). It is survey report of Chinese envoy over approximately 3 months from May 26th to August 27th. In this journey, Xu Jing(徐兢) was in charge of managing the administrative work such as vessels, personnel, and gifts, etc. Therefore in every process, Xu Jing recorded the information with illustrations that he saw and heard, and devoted it to Huizong in August 5th, 1124. It was favored by Huizong so that he gave Xu Jing a high government position. Today there are not illustrations anymore, but the book which were consisting of information and illustrations at that time, was quite valid document about living space and style of Goryeo royal palace centering around Gaegyeong. This is very important historical document to quate that writing year is sure and also the purpose and circumstance are clear. Because currently known historical record of Goryeo period is not many, actually it is very rare. And the types and materials of various vessels described in Gaolitujing have provided crucial evidence to study of the craft history occasionally. Particularly, three different types of copies in libraries of Ewha Womans University and Korea University, Seoul National University Kyujanggak(奎章閣) were investigated in the process for the first time. Therefore significance of Gaolitujing as a text that helps better understanding Goryeo can be known. It is highly likely that the various information transcribing about Goryeo in Gaolitujing has been provided a rigid point of view on Goryeo consistently and repeatedly. Gaolitujing was read through the repeatedly reading, copying, garnering of various histories and anthologies of Joseon period.

고려시대 茶文化와 靑瓷청자 茶具를 중심으로

장남원 한국미술연구소 2007 美術史論壇 Vol.- No.24

물질문화 관점으로 본 조선후기 玩物 陶瓷

장남원 미술사학연구회 2012 美術史學報 Vol.- No.39

This study explores the position of ceramics in the relationship between those using, making, and selling them in a set environment and how it is recognized from a material culture viewpoint. During the late Joseon Dynasty, the material interest in ceramics shows the worldly preferences and desires of individuals wanting to possess wares, even those made in the royal court, with the foundering of the symbolic rank of objects, their set original usage purposes, and the classical boundaries of classes that use them. Although the hobby of acquiring and contemplating ceramics is in itself unworldly, it settled as a worldy desire, changing the usage, production,and distribution of ceramics. The social phenomenon of collecting, enjoying, purchasing, and evaluating the quality of ceramics recognized as toys, including those made in China, fully surfaced in the late 18th century, according to estimates. Also,among ceramics, white porcelain stationery goods, pots, Chinese ceramics,and Goryeo celadon are often mentioned in the records. In particular,Goryeo celadon and Chinese ceramics were among some of the wedding presents in the royal court or for personal collections. Meanwhile, stationery goods made of ceramics, relatively largely, developed because they were favored by intellectuals as toys. On the other hand, although many ceramics were introduced from China during commerce with Joseon, they were not as diverse or numerous as depicted in drawings if you look at the royal goods handed down over generations or major relics excavated from palaces or cities. Therefore, the tableware already drawn from the late 18th century seem to be attempts to recreate books and objects of ideal libraries as well as tea and lodging rooms in harmony with reality, and as rooms fully equipped with various tableware and formality beyond the desire and hobby of “collecting antiques”or “beautiful stationery goods.” This is because new Chinese and Joseon ceramics were favored during those times other than objects with a symbolic image continued to be added over time. Unlike China or Japan or in-depth studies of the history of the possession of drawings carried out for many years, recently, from various perspectives such as the collectors, their possessed space, list, or trends, it is difficult to find clear records of ceramics in the list of collected and enjoyed items from the Goryeo to Joseon Dynasty. Just like the list of possessed paintings and calligraphic works, it would be necessary to organize the list and name sources of toys and crafts, including ceramics, in the future. 도자기를 물질문화적 관점으로 보려는 시도는 일정한 환경에서 도자기가 그것을 사용하거나 제작하는, 혹은 판매했던 사람들과의 관계에서 어떤 위치에 놓이며, 어떻게 인식되고 있었는지에 대한 관심이다. 조선 후기를 지나면서 도자기에 대한 물질적 관심은 농후해져, 기물이 가지는 위계나 정해진 본연의 용도 및 사용 계층의 고전적 경계가 허물어지면서, 왕실 관요에서 만든 자기들조차 개인이 소유하려는 세속적 취향과 욕망을 보여준다. 도자기를 수장하고 감상하는 취미 자체는 탈속적인 것이었지만, 그 자체가 새로운 세속적 욕망으로 자리하면서 도자기의 사용과 생산, 유통에 변화를 가져온 것이다. 국내에서 중국산 도자를 비롯, 자기를 완물로 인식하면서 수집, 감상, 구매, 품평했던 사회적 현상은 18세기 이후에 본격적으로 나타난 것으로 추측된다. 또 도자기 가운데는 백자 문방용품과 화분, 중국자기, 고려청자 등이 빈번하게 기록에 거명되는 종류였다. 특히 왕실의 예물이나 개인의 수집품 가운데는 고려청자와 중국자기 등이 포함되어 있었다. 한편 도자기로 만든 문구류는 상대적으로 크게 발달하는데, 이는 완물(玩物)로서 문방용품이 문인들에게 가장 애호되었기 때문이다. 한편, 중국과 조선의 교류에서 도자의 유입이 적지는 않았으나 왕궁이나 도성 내 주요 유적출토품과 궁중전세품 등을 보면 그림에 등장하는 것만큼 다양하지 않고, 그 수량도 매우 적다. 그러므로 이미 18세기 후반부터 본격적으로 그려지는 기명류 그림들은 단순히 ‘고동수집’ , ‘문방청완’이라는 취미적 활동과 욕망 표출의 경계를 넘어 다양한 그릇들을 구비하고 격식에 맞춰 그려 넣음으로써 현실과 조화된 이상적인 서실書室 또는 다실茶室, 향각香閣의 책과 기물을 재현하고자 했던 것이 아닐까 생각된다. 왜냐하면 시간의 변화에 따라 하나의 상징물로 이미지가 고정된 완물 종류 외에 동시대에 선호되던 중국 및 조선의 자기들이 지속적으로 새로운 요소로 추가되는 경향을 보이기 때문이다. 중국이나 일본과 달리, 그리고 최근수년간 국내 회화사 연구에서 회화 수장의 역사가 수집가와 수장 공간, 수장목록, 경향 등 여러 관점에서 심도 있게 다루어진 것에 비하면, 고려에서 조선에 걸친 시기에 도자기가 수집과 감상의 목록 등에 수록되어 뚜렷한 자취를 남긴 사례는 거의 찾아보기 어렵다. 향후 서화수장 목록처럼 도자기를 비롯한 완물 공예품의 목록이나 명칭근거 등에 대해 정리할 필요가 있다고 본다.

청자, 고려를 보는 눈

장남원 역사비평사 1998 역사비평 Vol.- No.45

고려시대 다(茶)문화와 청자(靑瓷) : 도자사 연구의 시야확장을 위한 시도

장남원 이화여자대학교 인문과학대학 2005 이화여자대학교 인문과학대학 교수학술제 Vol.13 No.

고려 初·中期 瓷器 象嵌技法의 연원과 발전

장남원 미술사학연구회 2008 美術史學報 Vol.- No.30

制作并使用象嵌技法的高丽青瓷与白瓷的时代已经开始受到中国和日本等周围国家的关注,而在韩国研究陶瓷的学界内,虽然对高丽晚期的“干支铭青瓷”关注度较高,最近10年间关于象嵌青瓷的独立论文却未发表过。我们已开始认识到,代表12-13世纪瓷器造型的象嵌技法大约源自制作初期青瓷的10世纪。当时高丽主要是从中国南方窑系学习制作瓷器的技术,然而,高丽却出现了中国南方窑系场未出现过的象嵌技法。 这些情况要从10世纪末以后东北亚所形成的对外关系上来进行了解。根据与契丹交往而形成的契丹工匠进入高丽、在南京(今,京畿道阳州及首尔附近)附近存在契丹村的情况,以及《高丽图经》记录的证据,我们认识到中国北方文化传入高丽的时期与象嵌技法的发生是属于同一时期。这时期应用的象嵌技法是在胎土表面涂赭土,然后再挖出留白,以及在胎土上面用黑土或白土来象嵌两种方法并存。所以到这些技术是从中国河北省或山西省传入的。而进入12世纪以后,金属器的嵌丝技法与木工艺的螺鈿漆技法等技术的造型发展已被中国发现。这些工艺通过国家的官营体制才可制作。所以到10世纪以后,潜在的瓷器的象嵌技法是与其他工艺的类似技术同时出现而发展的。 并且高丽中期以后出现的工艺技术当中,固定象嵌技法是相对来说难度较高而程序较复杂的技术,可以了解到它在制作阶段上已经用高级的手段来制作。同时,通过了解陶瓷质量方面的垫柱的种类和纹饰技法来比较,属于高级象嵌技法制作的陶瓷当中使用‘硅石支钉’的例子相对较多。器重与装饰技法之间还有一定的相关性。但是从阴刻、阳刻等的纹样上的比较来看,使用象嵌技法的瓷器在窑场和消费型遗址上出现的比例最低。 象嵌技法是高丽中期以后以康津与扶安为中心的最高级的纹饰工艺之一。通过分析康津地区的188个青瓷窑场出土样品,可知象嵌技法在12世纪中叶达到质量的鼎盛期,13至14世纪间产品的数量则扩大增加了。而没有把握这些技术的青瓷窑场就比较难制作象嵌瓷器。

『高麗圖經』의 ‘定器制度’와 청자

장남원 한국중세사학회 2018 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.55

This study examined diverse views on the meaning of ‘Dingqi zhidu(定器制度)’ mentioned in 『Gaolitujing(高麗圖经)』, and examined the contents of Goryeo celadon and Chinese ceramics mentioned in the records. Although I think that ‘Dingqi’ means ‘Ding ware’, it means that Goryeo had secretly followed China in the explanation of it, and in the following sentence, Goryeo thought that the new product of Lu ware and Yue ware It is said that it is not appropriate to determine its meaning because it is said to be similar to a celadon of the Royal kiln style. This is because, in addition to the Ding ware, there are a variety of pottery making techniques and molding elements, such as Yue ware, Lu ware, Jingdezhen ware and Yaozhou ware, at the same time, among the artifacts that were actually made in the Gangjin kiln in the early 12th century. Therefore, I think ‘Dingqi zhidu’ means ceramics making method and style which was generally done in China at that time. In the context of the maintenance of new objects that Goryeo had intended, the various chapters and their products, such as the Ding ware, which could affect the early 12th century consideration, such as Northern Song Royal Kiln, Lu ware, Yue ware I would like to open up the possibility of being affected. From a macroscopic point of view, the celadon in Goryeo in the first half of the 12th century shows that China has reached a stage of rebuilding itself in terms of qualitative level and formative quality of ceramics. In addition, Goryeo enters the culture that can produce celadons officially This is because it proves that.