중국어 보어의 현실성과 문장 종결 기능 ― ‘得’자 상태보어와 결과보어의 문법화 경로를 중심으로

김혜경 고려대학교 중국학연구소 2023 中國學論叢 Vol.- No.80

In modern Mandarin, the '得' complement of state can represent the realization of results and has a sentence ending function, while the resultative complement cannot form a complete sentence without the help of aspect markers or other grammatical markers. In this paper, it was shown that the sentence ending function in modern Mandarin is difficult to grasp simply with the presence or absence of ‘modality meaning’ or morphological markers, and should be analyzed based on the purpose of communication and delivery of information. Considering the purpose of the sentence, the '得' complement of state and the resultative complement can only form legitimate sentences if they imply the realization of the situation and related result. Therefore, the difference in the sentence ending function depends on whether the sentence can imply realization of the situation(realis). This paper argues that the difference on whether the '得' complement of state or the resultative complement can imply realization of result lies within their grammaticalization process. The '得' complement of state originates from 'V得X' and 'V得' structure, which represent the meaning of the achievement of certain action or the result caused by the action. This form has further developed into the mean to provide specific description of the result caused by the action in realis context. This still remains true in modern Mandarin, therefore '得' complement of state can imply the realization of result that follows the action the predicate depicts. On the other hand, the resultative complement is originated from the 'VV' structure, which is related to verbs that can form cause-and-effect relationship and the double-syllable phenomenon. Originally, the 'VV' structure could contextually represent the action and the realization of its result. However, due to the influence of combination of ‘了’‘s grammaticalization, ’了’ began to take over the function of representing realization. Therefore, predicate-complement structure developed from the ‘VV’ structure lost the meaning of realization and began to require other markers to form a legitimate sentence. Grammaticalization process of Mandarin complements is still ongoing in modern times, and the changes are reflected on sentence ending functions of those forms. It is hoped that more research will be conducted on the direction of grammaticalization and the resulting new language phenomena of modern Mandarin complements.

무조사 명사어구 구문의 통사 구조

최재희(Choe Jaehee) 한국언어문학회 2009 한국언어문학 Vol.68 No.-

This study analyses syntactic structures of the sentences where some bound nouns have a pre-noun clause as a complement clause and a non-case marker nominal clause is a complement clause of bound noun phrase. For non-case marker nominal with a pre-noun clause as a complement clause, this study targeted 'sŏng' and 'dŭs', complement nouns that are characterized as arguments of 'sip’-₂and burŭ-'. These complement nouns can not be considered as subjects in consideration of a few syntactic phenomena, but subjects were analysed as nominal phrase of higher sentences that are subjects of judging 'sip’-₂and burŭ-'. As 'sip’-₂', a psychological predicate that selects arguments of experiencers and objects, has a feature in vocabulary, no case for its internal argument can not be presented. In addition, it is thought that as 'sŏng' and 'dŭs', complement words of 'sip’-₂', has a feature in vocabulary as non-case nouns, characterization of case markers is obstructed. Accordingly, this study suggests a syntactic structure representation that bound nominal phrases are characterized as a complement word of 'sip’-₂' to become V' . Then, this study examines a phenomenon that bound nouns such as ' ttaemun, narŭm and jŏn' have '- ki nominal clause' as a complement clause. According to general syntactic rules of Korean language, a nominal has non-case marker. As it is suggested that this non-case marker '-ki nominal clause' is related with syntactic property of complement nouns, this study specifies syntactic property of each complement noun. Therefore, for structural representation of the sentences where non-case '-ki nominal clause' is characterized, it is suggested that this nominal clause is characterized as a complement word of 'ttaemun' a complement noun, to have N' category.

격조사 교체 현상을 통해 본 국어의 격 기능

송창선 국어교육학회(since1969) 2019 국어교육연구 Vol.- No.71

The purpose of this study is to clarify the functions of the Korean case markers in relation to the case alternation. The four types of case alternations in Korean are as follows: (1) the case alternation between Adverbial Case Marker and ‘eul/reul’, (2) the case alternation in ‘doeda’ sentence structure, (3) the case alternation in the double subject constructions (4) the case alternation in the double object constructions. I tried to find out the fundamental principle in the case alternations by investigating the four types of case alternations in Korean from all points. I insist that the type of the subject marker, the object marker, and the complement marker can not be substituted to other case markers. But if we can substitute ‘i/ga’ and ‘eul/reul’ to other case markers, then the functions of ‘i/ga’ or ‘eul/reul’ are irrelevant to the subject marker or the object marker. And we can find out the function of ‘i/ga’ in ‘doeda’ sentence structure is irrelevant to the complement marker, because ‘i/ga’ in ‘doeda’ sentence structure can be substituted to ‘euro’. 이 연구에서는 국어에서 격 교체 현상이 나타나는 경우를 (1) 부사격 조사와 ‘을/를’의 교체 현상, (2) ‘되다’ 구문의 격 교체 현상, (3) 이중 주어 구문의 격 교체 현상, (4) 이중 목적어 구문의 격 교체 현상으로 나누어 살펴보았다. 그리하여 격조사를 다른 격조사로 교체하게 되면 비문이 되는 경우에는 이들이 격의 기능을 그대로 지니는 것으로 보지만, 격조사를 다른 격조사로 교체할 수 있는 경우에는 그 중의 하나는 적어도 격조사의 본질적인 기능과는 거리가 먼 것으로 보아야 한다는 것을 가장 중요한 원리로 제시하였다. 그리고 이 원리에 따라 격 교체 현상을 살펴본 결과, 부사격 조사와 ‘을/를’이 교체되는 경우에는 ‘을/를’이 목적격 조사가 아니며, ‘되다’ 구문에서도 ‘이/가’와 ‘(으)로’가 교체될 때는 ‘이/가’를 보격 조사로 다루지 않아야 한다고 주장하였다. 끝으로 이중 주어 구문과 이중 목적어 구문의 격 교체 현상을 살펴봄으로써, 격 교체가 일어나는 이들 구문에서 진정한 주어와 목적어는 하나뿐임을 밝혔다. 다만 그 중에서 ‘NP의 NP’ 구 구성에서는 단순히 ‘의’가 ‘이/가’나 ‘을/를’로 교체되는 것으로 보지 말고, ‘NP의 NP’라는 구 구성 속에서 주어와 목적어가 결정되는 원리를 찾아야 한다고 주장하였다.

자연언어에 나타나는 공백현상에 관한 연구

홍영주 대한일어일문학회 2018 일어일문학 Vol.77 No.-

Empty category is called PRO and means some element of the sentence which must exist in the sentence does not appear. In this paper, we try to present the interpretation of the empty category sentence. Especially, we aim to describe the complement clause type depending on the type of the main clause predicate and the circumstances in which the interpretation of the empty category appear in each case. And in order to achieve this goal, we proceed the research in three step down below. First, we classified the type of the complement clause which is selected in simple verb sentence and the feature of the verb predicate sentence. In this study we particularly focus on the complement marker [-koto][-to] and [-no] in Japanese. Also we represent the subtype of the verb predicate which appears in the complement clause by its grammatical and semantic features. As a result, we figure out that the complement clause type can change according to main clause verb. On the other hand, we can identify that although they are correspond to each other in both languages, they can take the different complement clause marker. These phenomena can come from the differences of the range of the semantic feature in each verb. Second, we pick up the empty category phenomena appear in accordance with the complement clause type which is classified in the first step above and the feature of the predicate. Then we describe their interpretations. In this step, we research the empty category phenomena which can appear in each clause complement type and each sub-predicate, and represent the possible interpretations in each element. Then, we analyze the interrelationships between these interpretations and the predicate verb along with the tense of the complement clause. As a result of the analysis, the interpretation of the empty category can change by the tense of the complement clause. we can clarify that while in case of the non-past tense, the interpretation of the empty category appears to object [-ni] and [-ga], in case of the past tense, it appears irregularly. Third, through this comparative study, we represent the common feature and the condition that the verb predicate in each complement clause type is concerned with the empty category interpretation, and also present the similarities and the differences between the two languages.

고대 중국어의 동사 보문 구조

박향란 언어과학회 2019 언어과학연구 Vol.0 No.88

There are clear syntactic and semantic differences between the no- marker verbal complement clause and zhi-verbal complement clause in ancient Chinese. It is defined by the type of main verb that precedes it. Complement-taking verbs fall into three major classes: modality verbs, manipulation verbs, and perception-cognition-utterance verbs. Modality verbs and manipulation verbs precede no-marker complements and perception-cognition-utterance verbs precede complements marked by zhi (之). These dimensions involve the semantic bond or semantic integration. Temporal contiguity is indeed a necessary precondition for two events to become, cognitively, a single complex event, and referential integration is also an important sub-dimension of event integration. Modality verbs and manipulation verbs require temporal contiguity and co-reference. In contrast, p-c-u verbs occupy the bottom of integration scale, and their complements require no temporal contiguity and no co-reference with any argument of the main clause.

현대중국어의 ‘종결성’과 ‘종결성분’ ― 어기조사와 보어 구문을 중심으로

崔圭鉢 ( Choi Kyubal ) 중국어문연구회 2020 中國語文論叢 Vol.0 No.102

This study investigated ‘sentence-final Forms(or sentence-final moods)’ and ‘ending markers’, offering Chinese language explanations. Predicates are one of a sentence’s key components; they consist of grammatical components that portray the speaker’s psychological attitude toward an event and their intentions and perspectives with respect to the listener. Accordingly, in order to complete a sentence formally and semantically with respect to a predicate, an ending marker must appear. Here, rather than directly engaging with a sentence’s proposition, the ending remark is related to how the speaker expressed the proposition to the listener in order to perform syntactic functions to determine the type of sentence. As one of the Chinese language’s ending remarks, the modal particle was not only used as a means of expressing the speaker’s phonological changes and nuances, it was also discovered to be an essential grammatical form, helping sentences reach a formally and semantically complete state. Furthermore, in Chinese, the type of sentence to be expressed is determined by the speaker’s choice of ending remarks-in other words, by the modal particle-and this decision depends on the speaker’s psychological attitude since they will be delivering the sentence’s proposition. In addition, infinitives, aspect markers, and markers that are similar to aspect markers will require detailed consideration in relation to ending markers.

Characterization of complement C3 as a marker of alpha-amanitin toxicity by comparative secretome profiling

Kim Doeun,Lee Min Seo,Sim Hyunchae,Lee Sangkyu,Lee Hye Suk 한국독성학회 2023 Toxicological Research Vol.39 No.2

In the human body, proteins secreted into peripheral blood vessels are known as the secretome, and they represent the physiological or pathological status of cells. The unique response of cells to toxin exposure can be confirmed via secretome analysis, which can be used to discover toxic mechanisms or exposure markers. Alpha-amanitin (α-AMA) is the most widely studied amatoxin and inhibits transcription and protein synthesis by directly interacting with RNA polymerase II. However, secretory proteins released during hepatic failure caused by α-AMA have not been fully characterized. In this study, we analyzed the secretome of α-AMA-treated Huh-7 cells and mice using a comparative proteomics technique. Overall, 1440 and 208 proteins were quantified in cell media and mouse serum, respectively. Based on the bioinformatics results for the commonly downregulated proteins in cell media and mouse serum, we identified complement component 3 (C3) as a marker for α-AMA-induced hepatotoxicity. Through western blot in cell secretome and C3 ELISA assays in mouse serum, we validated α-AMA-induced downregulation of C3. In conclusion, using comparative proteomics and molecular biology techniques, we found that α-AMA-induced hepatotoxicity reduced C3 levels in the secretome. We expect that this study will aid in identifying new toxic mechanisms, therapeutic targets, and exposure markers of α-AMA-induced hepatotoxicity.

Plural Marker -tul and Its Structural Implication

이정식 한국생성문법학회 2012 생성문법연구 Vol.22 No.4

In this paper, I deal with exceptional distributions of the seeming plural marker -tul from Korean, where the licensing plural subject does not appear to c-command this marker. I suggest that the plural subject in such a problematic situation raises to a higher position to meet the c-command requirement. Observing that the licensing plural subject bears focus and/or specificity, I identify this movement as focus movement to Spec FocP posited above CP. I then argue that the relevant derivations can successfully proceed under the head-initial structure, but not under the traditional head-final structure. Consequently, the current result from Korean supports Kayne's (1994) universal specifier-head-complement order hypothesis, thus helping eliminate the head-parameter in the computation in line with recent minimalism (Chomsky 2005).

Plural Marker -tul and Its Structural Implication

Jeong-Shik Lee 한국생성문법학회 2012 생성문법연구 Vol.22 No.4

In this paper, I deal with exceptional distributions of the seeming plural marker -tul from Korean, where the licensing plural subject does not appear to c-command this marker. I suggest that the plural subject in such a problematic situation raises to a higher position to meet the c-command requirement. Observing that the licensing plural subject bears focus and/or specificity, I identify this movement as focus movement to Spec FocP posited above CP. I then argue that the relevant derivations can successfully proceed under the head-initial structure, but not under the traditional head-final structure. Consequently, the current result from Korean supports Kayne’s (1994) universal specifier-head-complement order hypothesis, thus helping eliminate the head-parameter in the computation in line with recent minimalism(Chomsky 2005).

On the Nominalizer-to-Stance Development: A Case of Seym `calculation` in Korean

( Junghye Baik ) 한국외국어대학교 언어연구소 2017 언어와 언어학 Vol.0 No.76

The aim of this paper is to illustrate the various uses of the Korean nominal seym `calculation`, ranging from propositional to expressive meanings. An attempt is made at delineating a grammaticalization path, which reveals the extent to which grammaticalization intersects with a number of cognitive mechanisms, such as metaphor, pragmatic inferencing, subjectification, and generalization. In present-day Korean, seym shows diverse functional usages such as a nominal marker, a connective marker, and a sentence final marker. In particular, this item advances in grammaticalization into versatile markers of grammatical concepts, e.g. tense-aspect-modality, style indication, etc. through diverse channels. Considering such versatility of the form as a result of the historical pragmatics and cognitive reanalysis, this paper focuses on the analysis of the semantic and functional changes of seym undergone over time, and discusses what are the possible triggers to cause this versatility to varying degrees within a grammaticalization framework.