南宋의 文人山水畵

박은화 한국미술사학회 2008 美術史學硏究 Vol.260 No.260

With the establishment of the Southern Song court in 1127 after the collapse of the Northern Song, the center of cultural activities moved to the new capital, Hangzhou, and with the strong support of Emperor Gaozong, the Southern Song painting underwent significant development. The landscape style of Northern Song was transmitted to the Southern Song by the painters who had been active since the late Northern Song period, but the monumental landscape style was gradually replaced by the simplified, more intimate Southern Song style. Previous studies on Southern Song landscape painting mainly focused on the works produced by the professional court artists, and regarded the tradition of literati landscape painting was inherited by the painters of the Jin Dynasty rather than by those of the Southern Song. Based on the results of recent research on Southern Song landscape paintings, this article examines the extant works and relevant literary records in an effort to identify how painting theories and styles of literati landscape developed in the late Northern Song period were transmitted and evolved in the artistic milieu led by the Southern Song literati class, and how they influenced the florescence of literati landscape painting in the subsequent Yuan period. Mi Youren, the archetypal painter of the early Southern Song period, painted the natural scenery of the Xiao and Xiang region with his distinctive ink and brush technique, re-interpreting it on the basis of his perceptions and experiences. In this way, he created his own mode of landscape which is highly individual and expressive. He also greatly influenced the later literati landscape paintings, including Master Li's Dream Journey over Xiao and Xiang, which is related to the Xiao and Xiang region. Zhao Bosu's Palace in the Pines and Li Jie's Fishing Society at Xisai Mountain, conveying the painters' individual ideas and emotions through the depicted scenes, ultimately became the inspiration for landscape paintings entitled with real-place names of the Yuan dynasty, which represented the hermitages, private residences and gardens of the literati. In the meantime, Fishing Society at Xisai Mountain and Zhao Kui's After a Poem by Du Fu were closely linked to the ci poetry and poem of the Tang Dynasty, constituting fine examples of the harmonious interaction of poetry and painting which literati painters sought to perfect. As the literati culture spread to the various social classes during the Southern Song period, the literati searched for painting themes and styles which differed from those of the professional painters, in an effort to express their own values and tastes. The six landscape paintings discussed in this article demonstrate that the Southern Song literati painters, who developed new painting concepts and styles on the basis of the Northern Song literati painting theory, established unique characteristics for their paintings distinct from the works of professional painters such as Li Tang, Ma Yuan and Xia Gui, and they also laid the foundations for the development of Yuan literati landscape painting. As more in-depth and multidimensional studies on the significance of the extant works are carried out, they would provide insight into the better understanding of Southern Song literati landscape paintings, as well as the development of the literati paintings of the Yuan and subsequent dynasties. 북송이 멸망하고 남송이 건립되면서 회화의 중심지는 새로운 수도인 항주로 옮겨갔고 고종의 적극적인 후원으로 강남지방의 회화가 크게 발전하였다. 북송 말부터 활동하던 화가들에 의해 북송의 산수화풍이 전해졌지만 웅장하고 강건한 북송의 大觀山水畵는 점차 강남의 자연경관에 기초한 남송산수화로 대체되었다. 남송대 산수화에 대한 기왕의 연구는 주로 화원화가를 중심으로 하는 직업화가의 작품에 집중되었고 문인산수화의 전통은 남송보다 금의 화가들에 의해 계승된 것으로 여겨졌다. 이 논문은 남송 산수화에 대한 최근의 연구성과를 바탕으로 현존하는 작품의 분석과 관련된 문헌자료를 통해 북송 후기에 형성된 문인산수화의 이론과 화법이 남송대 사대부사회의 문인문화를 배경으로 어떻게 계승되어 전개되었는지, 나아가 원대의 문인산수화 발전에 어떠한 영향을 주었는지를 고찰하였다. 남송 초를 대표하는 화가 米友仁은 수묵이 지닌 표현가능성을 극대화한 독특한 필묵형식으로 오랜 문학적 전통을 지닌 소상지역의 실경을 자신의 경험과 의식에서 재해석한 자연으로 그려내어 私的이면서 개성적인 산수화를 완성하였고 역시 소상지역과 관련된 舒城李生의 <瀟湘臥遊圖>를 비롯한 후대 문인산수화의 발전에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 구체적인 장소를 묘사한 趙伯驌의 <萬松金闕圖>와 李結의 <西塞漁隱圖>는 그림에 화가의 이념과 감정을 이입하고 화가와 정경이 합일되는 새로운 의미를 부여함으로 원대에 유행한 문인의 은거지, 사유지, 정원 등을 묘사한 실지명산수화의 선례가 되었다. 한편 <西塞漁隱圖>와 趙葵의 <杜甫詩意圖>는 唐代의 詩詞와 연결되면서 문인화가 추구한 詩畵一致의 경지를 보여준다. 남송대에 문인문화가 다양한 사회계층으로 확산되면서 문인들은 자신들의 가치관과 취향을 표현하기 위해 직업화가의 작품과 구별되는 주제와 양식을 모색하기 시작하였다. 이 글에서 살펴본 여섯 점의 산수화는 남송의 문인화가들이 북송대 문인화의 전통을 이으면서 새로운 회화이념과 양식을 통해 李唐과 馬遠, 夏珪로 대표되는 당시 직업화가들의 작품과 완연하게 구분되는 문인산수화의 특징을 확립하였고 원대 문인산수화 발전의 기반을 마련하였음을 설명해준다. 이처럼 현존작품이 지니는 의미를 다원적이고 유기적으로 파악하는 연구는 남송대 산수화의 양상과 원대 이후 문인화의 전개과정을 구체적으로 이해하는 데에 도움을 줄 것으로 여겨진다.

16세기 전반기의 士習과 어촌 심언광의 士習論

박도식 역사문화학회 2022 지방사와 지방문화 Vol.25 No.2

Literati's Mores(士習) refers to the customs of the Literati. Literati's Mores in the early Joseon Dynasty had a good appearance until the time of King Seongjong, but changed greatly during the reign of King Yeonsan. As for the cause, the officials of the time cited Muosahwa(무오사화, Literati Purge of 1498) and Gapjasahwa(갑자사화, Literati Purge of 1504). After undergoing Literati Purges twice during the reign of King Yeonsan, in the government and the people, one's father and elder brothers did not teach their children the fundamentals of learning, but only president were trained, and only the official rank and stipend were taught the words of decorating the paragraphs(章句) and the Literature creation(詞章) were trained, and only the official rank and stipend were taught, So, if you see people who practice Confucian philosophy(道學) and Confucian scriptures(經術), they say that it is a gate that brings disaster, so they are wary and the Literati's Mores has collapsed. After King Yeonsan was dethroned and King Jungjong took the throne, Literati's Mores showed improvement, but it was not easy to replace the collapsed Literati's Mores in a short time. Talent is not something that can be cultivated today and used tomorrow. The people who are hired as talents in an era can be said to be those who were nurtured at least 20 to 30 years before that era. Sim Eon­gwang said that almost all the literatis produced during the reign of King Seongjong were removed due to the Muosahwa and Gapjasahwa during the reign of King Yeonsan, so the custom was shrinking because they were afraid that the Literati would repeat the same mistake. However, after King Jungjong ascended to the throne, he said that even after 20 years of progress, his morale was broken and he did not show up again. I have not heard of any place that selects talented people who rush to appoint them according to their qualifications, hire honest people and defeat greedy people. In the reign of King Jungjong, the period for promotion to the Sixth grade­official duties(6품 관직) was much shorter than before for those from the Muneum(門蔭, protected appointment) graduates, and in a situation where there was not enough Civil Official(文臣) to appoint for the central the Sixth grade­official duties, it quickly took up almost all of the central the Sixth grade­official duties. At that time, Bungyeong(奔競), the custom of asking for a position in order to obtain a position, was prevalent. One of the biggest reasons I did Bungyeong was to ask for personnel for appointment or promotion in a public office. Sim Eon­gwang said that it is really difficult to choose a person, but when appointing officials, he does not discriminate whether he is wise or not, and he consistently takes the order of first and last according to the letter of request. Sim Eon­gwang academically valued the Learning of Confucian Classics(經學) rather than the Literature creation(詞章). He said, “The Learning of Confucian Classics are fundamental and Literature creation are final. However, to become a master of the sentences, you must read not only the Learning of Confucian Classics, but also read everything from the Learning of Confucian Classics to Shiji(史記) and Hundred Schools(諸子百家). Only then can you become a master of the sentences and achieve a master that will brighten the country.” 士習은 선비의 풍습을 말한다. 조선시대의 사습은 성종조까지만 해도 그런대로 바른 모습을 보였으나 연산조에 들어 크게 변하였다. 그 원인에 대해 당대의 관료들은 무오사화와 갑자사화를 들었다. 연산군 때 두 차례에 걸쳐 사화를 겪은 이후부터 朝野에서 부형들은 그들의 자제에게 학문하는 근본을 가르치지 않고 오직 章句와 詞章만 익히게 하고 爵祿을 꾀하는 것만 가르쳤으며, 道學과 經術을 업으로 삼는 사람을 보면 재앙을 부르는 문[禍門]이라 지칭하고 경계하게 되어 사습이 무너지게 되었다는 것이다. 연산군이 폐위되고 중종이 즉위한 후에 사습은 개선되는 모습을 보였지만, 무너진 사습을 단시일 내에 바꾸기란 쉽지 않았다. 인재는 오늘 배양하여 내일 당장 쓸 수 있는 것이 아니었다. 한 시대에 인재로 등용되는 인물은 그 시대보다 적어도 20~30년 전에 양성된 자들이라 할 수 있다. 심언광은 성종 때 양성한 선비가 연산조의 무오사화와 갑자사화로 많이 희생되자, 선비들이 그 전철을 밟을까 두려워하여 사습이 비루해졌다고 하였다. 그런데 중종이 즉위한 뒤로 20여 년 동안 사기를 진작시켜도 다시 떨치지 않아 아부하고 구차하게 살아가려는 버릇이 있고 충직하고 성실한 기풍이 없어져 인재를 선발하는 곳에서는 자격에 따라 제수하는 데에 급급하고, 청렴한 사람을 등용하고 탐욕한 자를 물리쳤다는 말을 듣지 못했다고 하였다. 한편 중종대에 들어와 문음 출신자는 6품 관직으로 승진하는 기간이 이전보다 훨씬 단축되었으며, 중앙의 6품 관직에 임명할 문신이 부족한 상황에서 빠르게 중앙의 6품 관직 거의 대부분을 차지하였다. 당시에는 벼슬을 얻기 위해 청탁하는 풍습인 奔競이 만연하였다. 분경을 한 가장 큰 이유 중의 하나는 관직의 임용이나 승진 등을 위한 인사청탁이었다. 심언광은 인물을 銓衡하기란 참으로 어려운데, 注擬할 때 현명 여부를 분간하지 않고 한결같이 청탁 쪽지에 따라 선후의 순서로 삼는다고 하였다. 심언광은 학문적으로 詞章보다 經學을 중시하였다. 그는 “대저 경학은 근본이고 사장은 말단이다. 그러나 문장의 大家가 되려면 경학뿐만 아니라 반드시 경학에 근본을 두고 史記 와 諸子百家에 이르기까지 다 읽어야 한다. 그런 뒤에야 대가가 될 수 있음은 물론 끝내는 나라를 빛낼 문장을 이룰 수 있다”고 하였다.

17ㆍ18세기의 서울을 배경으로 한 文會圖

조규희 서울시립대학교 서울학연구소 2001 서울학연구 Vol.- No.16

Paintings of Literati Gatherings in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-century Seoul Literati gatherings were very popular in the Choson dynasty. These literati meetings may include various social gatherings such as literati kyeboe, kiyongboe, and kiroboe(meeting of the elders). However, unlike literati kye meetings that were mostly held by colleagues in the same government bureaus or having passed the civil service examination in the same year, literati gatherings, munboe, usually took place among close and private friends. In this sense, the term munboe can be different from literati kye gatherings. Thus, munboe in this article means a rather informal, occasional, small scale, and voluntary meeting. These gatherings were prevalent especially during the late Choson period. In most cases, literati groups not only wanted to commemorate their meetings but also usually were good at calligraphy and painting, therefore would record their meetings in those media. In this gathering, literati shared their common interest and enjoyed aesthetic pleasures such as reading books, writing some poetry, and drawing pictures as well as appreciating antiques, old books, and paintings. Seoul was a center of these literati gatherings. These private meetings were mainly held at literati's studios or gardens in Seoul. The literati groups also had their gatherings in the beautiful scenery; thus they enjoyed mountain or riverside scenary of Seoul together. Scholars in Seoul were open to the new cultural trend. They were receptive to the culture of the late Ming literati from around the mid-seventeenth century. During the late Ming period(1573-1644), literati enjoyed their elegant gatherings with close friends in their private gardens and studios. They took pleasure in burning incense, drinking tea, playing the lute, and playing the go game. Paintings of literati gatherings also seemed to be produced under this cross-cultural context. Thereafter illustrations of munboe became popular in the late Choson period. Munboedo has a different background as well as a distinct painting form and style from kyehoedo in this regard. Munboedo is broadly divided into those drawn against a backdrop of a garden and those with a backdrop of a beautiful scenery. In case of the elegant gatherings in literati's gardens, there were usually literati who were expert in paintings. Thus, the scene of the meeting used to be depicted casually by literati. Instead of representing the meeting carefully like professional painters, literati painters depicted the scene like a sketch. However, they effectively expressed their literati taste in their munboedo through the objects in their paintings such as books, antiques, the lute, and the inkstone. Moreover, painters who had a status of wibang munin also took participate in their gatherings and painted the scene of the meeting. In this case, these paintings seemed to be more idealized than actual scene. It seemed to reflect their desire to join the main stream of literati class. In case of literati gatherings held in a beautiful scenery, the meeting generally required preparation for their stay in a beautiful natural environment. In this kind of gatherings, professional painters frequently joined there. It seemed important that literati gatherings for the pleasure trip, boeyu, were accompanied by high-level painters, because painters with high reputation would contribute to the elegance of their meetings. We can see the name of the great artists like Yi Ching(b.1581), Chong Son(1676-1759), and Kim Hongdo(b.1745) from many records related to painting of literati gatherings in a natural setting(boeyodo). The research about records and paintings for gatherings of literati who lived in Seoul may contribute to the reconstruction of the lost scene of Seoul and literati's culture.

(신)문인화의 의미변화에 대한 분석-문인화의 “사기(士气)”에서 신(新)문인화의 “반(反)문화”로

이영일 한국기초조형학회 2021 기초조형학연구 Vol.22 No.3

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the change of the meanings of literati paintings in the context of the evolution from the “morale” of literati paintings to the “anti-culture” of neo-literati paintings. More specifically, it focuses on the semantic change from the definition of literati-paintings by Tung Chi-chang in the end of Ming Dynasty to the change of its meanings in different historic periods. It also aims at answering the questions, such as, what causes the neo-literati paintings to put forward the anti-cultural slogans against the conventional literati painting; what the features of the neo-literati paintings are; and how to understand the change of the meanings in the context of contemporary Chinese arts. The meanings of neo-literati paintings are derived from and generated in the relationship with the conventional literati paintings. Due to such particularity, the research method of this paper is to study the previous researches in the intertextual context. It is in the same context to appropriate Hal Foster’s “Parallax”. Chapter II deals with the definition of morale, which is the basis of the literati paintings, and the features of literati-paintings. Then, the first section of chapter III investigates the formation of the literati paintings at the shock of Euro-culture in the end of 19th century, while the second section analyzes the reform movement of literati paintings in the period of art politicization after 1949. Chapter IV studies the features of anti-culture in neo-literati paintings with the analysis of the structural and semantic changes under new historical conditions. The tentative conclusion is that the neo-literati paintings should be studied not only in the contrast with the conventional literati paintings, but also in the context of the conflict with European culture, and with the relationship of cultural power structure. In this sense, the features including that of the anti-culture would reveal the historical and cultural changes of Chinese society in the contemporary period within their complexity, multiplicity, and ambiguity. The significance of this study is to provide the reference for the researchers who might study on (neo)-literati paintings in the future. 이 연구의 목적은 문인화가 어떻게 "문인화의 사기"에서 "신인문화의 반문화"로 의미가 변화했는가를추적하는 것이다. 명말의 동기창에 의하여 정립된 문인화는 역사와 시대 속에서 어떻게 변화하였는가. 그리고 개혁개방과 함께 출현한 신문인화는 왜 기존의 문인화에 대항하여 반문화적인 구호를 제출하였으며 그것의 특점은 무엇이며 이러한 것들은 중국동시대미술의 맥락에서 어떻게 이해해야 할 것인가 등이 본고의 문제의식이다. 신문인화는 기존의 문인화와의 관계속에서 의미를 파생하고 획득한다. 이런 특점에 근거하여 본고는 연구방법은 기존의 연구자료를 상호텍스트적 맥락에서 읽는 것이다. 아울러 핼 포스터의 “변위(Parallax)” 개념의 적극적인 수용도 그러한 맥락에서이다. 논의의 순조로운진행을 위하여 Ⅱ장에서 문인화의 근간인 사기(士气)와 문인화의 일련의 특점을 언급하고자 한다. 3 장 1절에서 서구문화의 충격과 함께 19세기 말부터 문인화가 어떻게 각색되었는지를 살펴볼 것이며, 2절에서는 1949년 이후 예술의 정치화에 따른 문인화의 개조운동을 살펴보고자 한다. 4장의 논의초점은 신문인화가 새로운 역사사회 환경 속에서 어떤 구조적 변화와 의미지층의 변동을 수반했는가의두면서, 신문인화의 반(反)문화적 특징을 살펴볼 것이다. 잠정적 결론으로 신문인화를 전통문인화와의 대별구도 속에서, 서구문화와의 충돌 속에서 그리고 문화권력구조의 수열관계 속에서 복합적으로연구되어야 한다. 아울러 신문인화의 반문화적인 인소를 포함한 일련의 특징은 동시대상황 속에서의중국사회의 역사와 문화적 상황을 복합적이고 중층적이고 양가적으로 드러내 보인다. 끝으로 본고가(신)문인화연구자들에게 참고문헌 역할을 하길 기대해본다.

문인예술(文人藝術)의 삼교사상(三敎思想)에 관한 고찰

장기준 ( Jang Ki Jun ) 한국동양예술학회 2017 동양예술 Vol.34 No.-

When discussing about literati art, literati paintings comes first, and it is easy to access to the theories about it. The theory of `gentry paintings` established by Su Dongpo(蘇東坡) in Song Dynasty was the beginning, and it was the objection to the group of painters at that time, which was biased towards a painting form. In addition, it had been affected by the social background of ethnocracy in Yuan Dynasty. Furthermore, it had been compiled as the concept of `literati`s paintings` by Dong Qichang(董其昌) in Ming Dynasty. After all, as it was called `literati paintings`, it has been changed with the identity that suited the needs of the time. To comprehend literati art as mentioned above, we should grasp the mutual concepts of literati and art first because both are inconsistent due to their extensive and subjective scopes. Among the mutual concepts, the most distinguishing one is to pursue a social significance. In other words, it is the objective to propagate literati`s ideal to the public through art as an indirect means. Since it is also evitable to have a sense of responsibility, not only the art works as a result but also the production process matters. Thus, personality used to be emphasized naturally. This study focused on the self-consciousness that literati have exhibited in accordance with the situation. The self-consciousness here connotes literati`s subjectivity, social purpose and mental action. Especially literati`s practical spirits that pursue essence underlie it, that is to say, there is a stage of `process` directly related to their own ideal result. Historically, literati have emphasized on the stage of `process`. In the categories of art, there are two tendencies. One is `the process based on the premise of a painstaking effort`, and the other is `the transcendence from the process`. The former is Confucian aesthetic interpretation, and the latter is about Taoistic or Buddhist aesthetics. Consequently, it could transcend only through the `process` based on the premise of an effort, and the subsequent stage mutually fused is regarded as the best ideal. By the way, there might be a cacophony of art practices by denying the others due to a blind self-consciousness. The `process` of artistic activities is sometimes neglected by biased towards the result of art works. Fortunately, there has appeared artistic activities that emphasize on `process` lately. For example, `performance` activities have been performed in East Asian calligraphy cultural area. Especially in Japan, it is ideal that teachers and students cooperate as a way of educating. The collectivity of calligraphy makes students realize the pleasure of the process to resolve conflicts of group activities experienced during an artistic production with cooperation. It is the phenomenon that a subjective concept of calligraphy turns into an objective concept, and it could be the modern significance that starts to emerge in literati art.

儒家 文人藝術의 寫意的 發顯處 : 文人畵

권윤희 한국유교학회 2016 유교사상문화연구 Vol.0 No.64

A painting means a combination of color and line. A literati painting is a genre of a painting but on condition that the one who draws the literati painting must have learning and good character. A poem, handwriting and a drawing harmonized in a literati painting that has spirituality. And it is a kind of hobby enjoying with chinese ink. And it is characterized that it is moderate in using chinese ink and put much emphasis on meaning drawing. So confucian literati art pursues harmony between art and morals, art and philosophy. Pursuing harmony between art and morals is to stay aesthetic delight status through cultivating one’s moral character and establishing one’s personality. So confucian literati art could exist together. And pursuing harmony between art and philosophy means intention for metaphysical truth based on the proper way. The proper way means constant justice or natural principal. So it can be said that confucian literati art intends metaphysical virtue. Confucian literati art is characterized by meaning-drawing and it is well expressed in the literati paintings. This is the special property of a literati painting. There are three characteristics as follows. first, a literati painting comes into existence by using a metaphor. A confucian literati express himself through personified natural things such as Japanese apricot flower, orchid, chrysanthemum, bamboo and fine tree. Through personifying natural things they wants to imitate the natural things virtue. By using a metaphor being material for the literati paintings shows meaning of confucian literati. second, a literati painting expresses mostly through putting emphasis on spirit. Because confucian literati ́́s system of thinking based on putting emphasis on principle has characterized by pursuing aesthetic metaphysics and is expressed by meaning drawing. third, poem, handwriting, and painting are put together in good harmony. Usually confucian art are expressed by poem, handwriting, and painting, but especially a literati painting can show its beauty by perfect harmony with poem, handwriting, and painting. So a literati painting is characterized by using a metaphor, putting emphasis on spirit, harmony in poem, handwriting, and painting. So it can be said that confucian literati art is expressed mostly in a literati painting. 文人은 학문에 뜻을 두며 이를 평생 궁구하는 사람이다. 특히 유가의 문인은 학문을 닦아 인격을 발양하고 성인을 이상으로 삼고 군자와 선비가 되는 것을 지향한다. 그들은 자신의 수양과 학문을 통하여 인간의 본성을 바탕으로 한 유가의 문인예술을 창조하였다. 유가 문인예술은 예술과 도덕의 합일·예술과 철학의 조화를 추구함이 특징이다. 예술과 도덕의 합일 추구는 덕성을 함양하고 인격의 완성을 통하여 최고의 심미적 열락경계에 머무르기 위한 것이며, 예술과 철학의 조화를 추구함은 常理에 바탕을 두고 형이상의 진리를 지향하기 위함이다. 이는 유가의 문인예술이 形而上의 가치를 지향하는 근거이다. 그러므로 유가는 도덕과 철학이 항시 예술과 함께 생활 중에 이루어짐으로서 삶의 이상향을 추구한다. 따라서 유가 문인예술의 특징은 예술과 도덕·예술과 철학이 대대와 상보로 합일과 조화를 추구하는 것이 일반적이다. 유가 문인의 寓意는 比德性‧重神似性‧詩書畵 調和의 방법으로 나타난다. 比德性은 군자가 됨을 지향함으로 자연물에 덕성을 부여하여 이를 의식적으로 닮고자 하는 바람이다. 또한 중신사성은 모사가 아닌 정신성을 보여주는 사의의 특성을 보여준다. 이와 같은 특징을 보여주는 대표적인 예술장르가 문인화이다. 문인화는 대부분 유가 문인의 인품과 학문을 전제로 하며 餘技에 의한 墨戱와 惜墨으로 인한 神似의 기법으로 한다. 바꾸어 말하면 이러한 이유로 문인화는 유가 문인의 寓意를 드러내는 대표적인 예술장르임을 보여준다.

文人心态转变视角下的文人篆刻研究

장이웨이(Zhang, Yi-Wei) 대한중국학회 2021 중국학 Vol.76 No.-

元代社会的变革对中国文人篆刻艺术的形成产生了重要的影响。蒙古人统治下的元代对整个汉文化都形成了不小的打击,包括传统社会等级、秩序、观念在内的众多方面都受到了明显的冲击(傅海波&崔瑞德1998)。受此影响波及,文人篆刻艺术实现了审美自觉,文人篆刻实践也从最初仅设计印面到设计、制作全过程的过渡。而这些转变与元代社会背景下文人心态的转变有直接关系。本文主要分为两个部分,第一部分主要讨论当前学术界关于文人篆刻艺术形成时间的主流观点,并通过分析揭示文人篆刻形成于元代的合理性。第二部分主要探讨文人篆刻形成于元代的根本原因。本文认为促使元代文人篆刻形成的真正因素是时代变迁背景下文人心态的转变。当彼时文人参与篆刻实践没有了思想上的负担,无论是以此为业还是仅仅回应内心的审美诉求都能够实现。篆刻家、篆刻理论、篆刻作品的出现,昭示着文人篆刻艺术真正意义上的形成。 The social changes in the Yuan Dynasty had a decisive influence on the formation of Chinese literati s seal cutting art. The Yuan Dynasty under the Mongols rule had a big blow to the entire Han culture, and many aspects including the traditional social hierarchy, order, and concepts were obviously impacted (Fu Haibo & Cui Ruide 1998). Affected by this influence, the art of literati seal cutting realized aesthetic consciousness. The practice of literati seal cutting has also transitioned from the initial design of the seal surface to the whole process of design and production. And these changes are directly related to the change of people s mentality under the social background of the Yuan Dynasty. This article is mainly divided into two parts. The first part mainly discusses the current mainstream views in the academic circles about the formation time of literati seal cutting art, and reveals the rationality of the formation of literati seal cutting in the Yuan Dynasty through analysis. The second part mainly discusses the root cause of the formation of literati seal cutting in the Yuan Dynasty. This article believes that the real factor that promoted the formation of the seal cutting of the literati in the Yuan Dynasty is the change of the people s mentality under the background of the changes of times. When the literati participated in the practice of seal cutting, there was no ideological burden, and it was possible to realize whether they were doing this as a career or merely responding to their inner aesthetic appeal. The appearance of seal cutters, seal cutting theories, and seal cutting works indicate the formation of the true sense of the art of seal cutting by literati.

論唐代文人的嶺南意象

李榮華(Li Ronghua) 경북대학교 아시아연구소 2009 아시아연구 Vol.- No.7

“남방은 본래 독이 많아, 북쪽의 客이 언제나 침입할까 두려워 한다”는 것은 唐代문인의 영남에 대한 이미지(Image)이다. 영남은 환경이 무덥고,식물자원이 풍부하며, 瘴氣, 射工, 毒草, 蠱毒, 毒蛇등 독을 가진 생물이 살기에 적합하고, 옛날 이곳으로 이주해온 중원 인사들이 그 환경에 적응을 하는데 영향을 주어, 그들이 이 지역의 환경이 매우 나쁘다고 보게 되었다. 중원 지역과 비교해 볼 때, 영남 경제 문화의 낙후는 중원사회로부터 편견과 경시를 받게 만들게 되었고, 그들의 관념 속에 “蠻夷”의 땅으로 자리 잡게 되었다. 영남 경제문화 및 생태 환경의 특성들 때문에 쫓겨 난 문 인들의 주요 유배지가 되게 되었고, 이들 문인들은 그들의 좌절과 죽음에 대한 공포 속에서 영남의 매우 열악한 생태 환경을 반복적으로 그려냈던 것이다. 때문에 문인들의 영남에 대한 이미지의 형성은 영남의 생태환경, 사회환경 그리고 그들 자신이 처한 환경이 함께 작용한 결과였다. 당대 중기로부터 문인의 桂林, 連州와 韶州등에 대한 인식에 변화가 발생하였다. 이 지방의 환경은 사람의 마음에 들었으며 사람의 생존에 적합하였다. 문인의 이들 지방에 대한 인식의 변화는 그것들의 특별한 생태환경, 경제문화 발전의 성과와 함께 밀접한 관계가 있었다. 한편으로는, 桂林등 영남 북부의 산지 구릉지대의 비교적 높은 지세에 위치하고 있고, 영남 남부의 지대가 낮고 습기가 많은 땅의 환경과는 일정한 차별이 있다. 또 한편으로는 이들 지방은 중원과 영남의 육로교통선상에 위치하는데 지리 위치상으로 매우 중요하여 그 경제 문화는 북방으로부터의 이민의 큰 추세 속에서 신속한 발전이 일어났다. 그 지역의 경제 문화적 발전 과정은 사람들이 그 사회 환경과 생태 환경을 새롭게 개조하고 다시 새롭게 인식하는 과정이었다. 비록 이 지방의 인식에 대한 문인들의 변화가 발생하였다고 하지만, 전체적으로 볼 때 이러한 변화는 문인의 영남에 대한 이미지를 근본적으로 변화시킨 것은 아니어서 영남은 여전히 공포의 땅이고 사람들로 하여금 매우 무서워하는 땅으로 남아있었다. There were all kinds of poison in the south, the people from the north had always feared them. This was the literati’s Lingnan image in the Tang dynasty. It was warmer than the north and there were rich plants in Lingnan. This ecological environment fit malaria, akamushi disease, poison ivy, parasitic tympanties, viper and so on. The people from the north did not adapted Lingnan so that they thought it was very horrible. Compared with the Center China, economic and culture lag in Lingnan made that the literati was full of prejudice and discrimination. So the literati thought that Lingnan was uncivilized. Lingnan became the most important place that the banished literati were exiled because of its economy, culture and ecological environment. To these literati, they expressed their frustration and fear of death by writing poetry on abominable ecological environment of Lingnan. Therefore, that ecological and social environment in Lingnan interacted with the literati’s encounter had resulted the literati’s Lingnan image. The literati’s concept to Guilin, Lianzhou and Shaozhou began to change from the middle Part of Tang Dynasty, these place were delightful and suitable for the people from the north. This concept closely connected with their special ecological environment, the development of their economic and culture. On the one hand, Guilin, Lianzhou and so on located in the north of Lingnan. There was mountain and upland. Their ecological environment was different with the south of Lingnan that was wetlands. On the other hand,these place were along land transport line between the Central China and Lingnan, geography position was very important, their economy and culture developed rapidly with the help of the people from the north. The process that their economy and culture developed was that people changed and knew ecological environment again. Although the literati’s concept about Guilin, Lianzhou and so on shifted, they did not fundamentally change the literati’s Lingnan image. It was still horrible and very daunting.

조선시대 사대부들의 유람 중의 활동

정치영(Chi-Young Jung) 한국역사민속학회 2013 역사민속학 Vol.42 No.-

이 연구는 조선시대에 저술된 북한산·금강산 등 7개 산의 유산기와 여행기록을 담은 일기를 자료로, 조선시대 사대부들이 유람 중에 펼쳤던 여러 가지 활동들을 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 하였다. 그 결과, 조선시대 사대부들의 유람 중에 시 쓰기, 독서, 토론, 제명 등의 활동이 관행적으로 이루어졌음을 확인할 수 있었다. 먼저 시 쓰기는 특정장소에 이르러 선인들이 지은 시를 회상한 다음, 이와 비교하여 자신의 감흥을 시로 옮기는 것이 관행화되어 있었다. 이 때문에 조선시대 사대부들이 유람 중에 쓴 시는 대개 그 소재가 중복되었으며, 사대부들이 많이 찾은 명승지나 사찰이 주요한 소재였다. 사대부들은 유람 중에도 독서를 게을리 하지 않았다. 사대부들은 많이 읽은 책은 『심경』, 『근사록』등으로, 유람의 중요한 목적 중 하나인 마음공부에 도움에 되는 것들이었다. 사대부들은 유람 중에 동행한 친지, 산에서 만난 승려와 많은 토론을 하였는데, 그 주제는 유교와 불교, 산의 경치와 역사, 전설과 문화유산 등 다양하였다. 명승지에 자신의 이름이나 시를 쓰는 제명은 조선시대에 매우 성행하였다. 사대부의 제명은 시쓰기와 함께 선인의 유람관행을 본받는다는 의미가 강하였으나, 이에 대해 비판적인 입장을 보인 사대부들도 적지 않았다. 제명은 바위는 물론, 건물·나무 등 다양한 곳에 이루어졌으며, 승려와 노복이 글자를 새기는 데 동원되었다. 사대부들은 산을 유람하는 동안 계곡에서 탁족, 목욕 등을 하였는데, 여행으로 지친 몸을 위로하고 정신을 수양하는 방법으로 이용되었다. 금강산에서는 ‘치폭’이라는 폭포타기 놀이가 관행화되어 있었다. 끝으로 산제는 지리산, 백두산을 여행한 사대부들을 중심으로 행해졌는데, 주로 유람하는 동안 날씨가 좋기를 기원하였다. 특히 백두산에서는 현지 주민들의 전통에 따라 산제를 지냈다. The purpose of this research is to research on the various activities of literati during travel in the Joseon Dynasty. I used the travel account of seven mountains, such as Mt. Bukhan and Mt. Gumgang, and the diary data containing travel records for this research. As a result, during the time of Joseon Dynasty literati traveled with writing, reading, discussion, inscribing names, etc. First, literati wrote poetry during travel. They recalled the poem written by ancient people in a certain place, and then wrote their poem with their inspiration. Because of this, the materials of literati poems were usually duplicated. They mainly wrote about the major scenic spots and temples. Second, literati did not neglect reading and discussing during the travel. The books mostly read by literati were 『Simgyeong(心經)』, 『Geunsarok(近思錄)』, etc. that were helpful to practice mind that is one of the key objectives of the travel. They discussed with friends who accompanied during the travel or monk who met at the mountain. The topic of discussion were various such as Confucianism, Buddhism, scenery and history of mountains, legends, and cultural heritages. Third, inscribing names or poems in scenic spots was very prevalent in the Joseon Dynasty. This meant to follow the practice of ancestors but a few literati were critical. Inscribing place was various such as rocks, buildings, trees, etc. They let monks and servants help to carve letters. Forth, literati enjoyed ‘Takjok(濯足, clean the foot at stream)’ and bath in the valley during traveling mountains. These were for making weary body up and fostering the spirit. In Mt. Gumgang, they enjoyed ‘Chipok(馳瀑)’ that is riding the waterfall. Finally, ‘Sanjae(山祭)’, religious service for the god of mountain, was for praying for good weather during travel. Literati who were travel Mt. Jiri and Mt. Baekdu served Sanjae. Especially, literati serve it in the tradition of the local people in Mt. Baekdu.

조선시대 사대부들의 유람 중의 활동

정치영 한국역사민속학회 2013 역사민속학 Vol.0 No.42

The purpose of this research is to research on the various activities of literati during travel in the Joseon Dynasty. I used the travel account of seven mountains, such as Mt. Bukhan and Mt. Gumgang, and the diary data containing travel records for this research. As a result, during the time of Joseon Dynasty literati traveled with writing, reading, discussion, inscribing names, etc. First, literati wrote poetry during travel. They recalled the poem written by ancient people in a certain place, and then wrote their poem with their inspiration. Because of this, the materials of literati poems were usually duplicated. They mainly wrote about the major scenic spots and temples. Second, literati did not neglect reading and discussing during the travel. The books mostly read by literati were 『Simgyeong(心經)』, 『Geunsarok(近思錄)』, etc. that were helpful to practice mind that is one of the key objectives of the travel. They discussed with friends who accompanied during the travel or monk who met at the mountain. The topic of discussion were various such as Confucianism, Buddhism, scenery and history of mountains, legends, and cultural heritages. Third, inscribing names or poems in scenic spots was very prevalent in the Joseon Dynasty. This meant to follow the practice of ancestors but a few literati were critical. Inscribing place was various such as rocks, buildings, trees, etc. They let monks and servants help to carve letters. Forth, literati enjoyed ‘Takjok(濯足, clean the foot at stream)’ and bath in the valley during traveling mountains. These were for making weary body up and fostering the spirit. In Mt. Gumgang, they enjoyed ‘Chipok(馳瀑)’ that is riding the waterfall. Finally, ‘Sanjae(山祭)’, religious service for the god of mountain, was for praying for good weather during travel. Literati who were travel Mt. Jiri and Mt. Baekdu served Sanjae. Especially, literati serve it in the tradition of the local people in Mt. Baekdu. 이 연구는 조선시대에 저술된 북한산․금강산 등 7개 산의 유산기와 여행기록을 담은 일기를 자료로, 조선시대 사대부들이 유람 중에 펼쳤던 여러 가지 활동들을 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 하였다. 그 결과, 조선시대 사대부들의 유람 중에 시 쓰기, 독서, 토론, 제명 등의 활동이 관행적으로 이루어졌음을 확인할 수 있었다. 먼저 시 쓰기는 특정장소에 이르러 선인들이 지은 시를 회상한 다음, 이와 비교하여 자신의 감흥을 시로 옮기는 것이 관행화되어 있었다. 이 때문에 조선시대 사대부들이 유람 중에 쓴 시는 대개 그 소재가 중복되었으며, 사대부들이 많이 찾은 명승지나 사찰이 주요한 소재였다. 사대부들은 유람 중에도 독서를 게을리 하지 않았다. 사대부들은 많이 읽은 책은 『심경』, 『근사록』 등으로, 유람의 중요한 목적 중 하나인 마음공부에 도움에 되는 것들이었다. 사대부들은 유람 중에 동행한 친지, 산에서 만난 승려와 많은 토론을 하였는데, 그 주제는 유교와 불교, 산의 경치와 역사, 전설과 문화유산 등 다양하였다. 명승지에 자신의 이름이나 시를 쓰는 제명은 조선시대에 매우 성행하였다. 사대부의 제명은 시 쓰기와 함께 선인의 유람관행을 본받는다는 의미가 강하였으나, 이에 대해 비판적인 입장을 보인 사대부들도 적지 않았다. 제명은 바위는 물론, 건물․나무 등 다양한 곳에 이루어졌으며, 승려와 노복이 글자를 새기는 데 동원되었다. 사대부들은 산을 유람하는 동안 계곡에서 탁족, 목욕 등을 하였는데, 여행으로 지친 몸을 위로하고 정신을 수양하는 방법으로 이용되었다. 금강산에서는 ‘치폭’이라는 폭포타기 놀이가 관행화되어 있었다. 끝으로 산제는 지리산, 백두산을 여행한 사대부들을 중심으로 행해졌는데, 주로 유람하는 동안 날씨가 좋기를 기원하였다. 특히 백두산에서는 현지 주민들의 전통에 따라 산제를 지냈다.