Development as education for social justice

Sung‑Sang Yoo,Ridwanul Mosrur,Eunhye Lee,Diego Toca Andrea 서울대학교 교육연구소 2019 Asia Pacific Education Review Vol.20 No.2

The correlation between education and development, with time, went through many changes along with the changes of perspectives. Since both of these concepts encompass wide ranges of social phenomena and factors, the analysis remains always complicated. However, in the era of SDGs and at the time when post-development debates have been raised, it is important to address this conceptual correlation through the conceptual analysis. Diferent development theories, as refected in the discussion, have presented the vitality of education in development process from diferent angle, in deeper analysis it became clearer that actually two major trends exist—education ‘for’ development and education ‘in’ development—under which all can be grouped. However, the critics of those diferent development theories paint the picture with an assumption that the role of education in the process of development has been misunderstood and mis-presented to some extent. This poses the debate towards fnding how the role of education to development process can be better realized and, therefore, this paper analysed it from three key thoughts towards redefning the paradigm. Goulet argues that development needs authentic in ethical way where Sen more freedom should be given by widening individual’s capability. However, in close analysis on Freirean thoughts, the limits of this relation remain un-encompassed as the defnition of development is rather contextual and fexible for the discourses on the role of education for social justice.

Lexical Verb Forms in L1 and L2 Spoken English:A Corpus-Based Analysis

Sung,Min-Chang(Min-Chang Sung) 경인교육대학교 교육연구원 2022 교육논총 Vol.42 No.-

The present study investigates Korean learners’ use of English lexical verb forms and identifies learner deviations from native usage patterns. It examines the frequencies of six verb forms (i.e., base, present, third-person singular, past, gerund, and past participle) in a native and a learner corpus of argumentative speeches. The study reveals that certain verb forms are overor underused by Korean learners of L2 English, compared to native speakers of English. It is also found that L2 overuse and underuse of verb forms are closely related to Korean learners’ overreliance on or avoidance of major lexico-grammatical patterns around the verb forms (e.g., to + base verb). These findings have pedagogical implications for teaching Korean learners to use various verb forms with major lexico-grammatical patterns in English speaking.

Extension of Lance Life by Change of Height of Lances in the Smelting Furnace of Mitsubishi Process

Sung‑Mi Lim,Soo‑Sang Park,Kyung‑Woo Yi 대한금속·재료학회 2021 METALS AND MATERIALS International Vol.27 No.10

A Mitsubishi process, which pertains to continuous Cu production, involves a smelting furnace, cleaning furnace, and convertingfurnace connected in series. One of the main issues pertaining to the smelting furnace is the frequent interruption ofoperations required to allow the inspection and replacement of lances, because lances are frequently fractured. The presentstudy was aimed at modifying the operating conditions of the smelting furnace to suppress lance fractures. A numericalmodel was developed to simulate the transport phenomena in the furnace, including multi-phase behaviors. The simulationresults showed that the lances were exposed to a severely erosive atmosphere with high temperatures. Further calculationindicated that raising the positions of the lances could lower the temperature of the lances, and reducing the occurrence ofsplashed melt, which contains erosive sulfides. The smelting furnace was operated under the conditions of the raised lanceheight and attentively monitored for several months. It was confirmed that by implementing such a change of the lanceheights, the occurrence of lance failures has been considerably reduced without notably affecting the reaction ability of thesmelting furnace.

Tuberculosis risk is associated with genetic polymorphisms in the LRP2, CUBN, and VDR genes

Sung‑Soo Kim,Sang In Lee,Hyun‑Seok Jin,Sangjung Park 한국유전학회 2020 Genes & Genomics Vol.42 No.10

Background Vitamin D (Vit. D) is used extensively during tuberculosis treatment. Low levels of serum Vit. D increase the risk of active tuberculosis development. Altered expression of the proteins involved in Vit. D metabolism impairs cathelicidin production, thereby increasing the host susceptibility to tuberculosis. Objective We are trying to investigate whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in LRP2, CUBN, and VDR genes could afect tuberculosis development. Methods We included participants of the Korean Association Resource (KARE), part of the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study (KoGES), and used their recorded data. A total of 8840 people (4182 men and 4658 women) were eligible subjects. The 5-kb regions from the ends of transcripts of GC, LRP2, CUBN, and VDR genes were amplifed to select 13, 47, 70, and 15 SNPs, respectively. For association analysis and statistical analysis, PLINK version 1.07 and PASW Statistics version 18.0 were used. Results Signifcant correlation was observed in 11, 2, and 1 SNPs in LRP2, CUBN, and VDR genes. The efect of rs6747692 of LRP2 on transcription factor binding was confrmed using RegulomeDB. We confrmed that rs2239182 of VDR is located in the genomic eQTL region and can afect transcription factor binding and gene expression. Conclusions Genetic polymorphisms in genes encoding proteins involved in Vit. D metabolism infuence immune system components. Therefore, such polymorphisms may infuence the susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis invasion and alter the defense mechanisms against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. The correlation between genetic variation and tuberculosis development can provide new guidelines for the management of tuberculosis.

이상의 문자(文字) 감각과 매체의 모더니티

김성수 ( Sung Soo Kim ) 한국비교문학회 2011 比較文學 Vol.55 No.-

This article begins with an awareness of two. One is to consider the meaning of "letter" sensibility, as expressed in Yi Sang`s text in relation to newspapers and printed media, which constituted modern media in the city of Gyeong-seong [京城] in the 1930`s. The other is to analyze Yi Sang`s dream of writing and of realizing his goals through the letter expression. Therefore, the objective of this article is to investigate the unique ideas about letters and the meaning of the expressions in the literary texts of Yi Sang, who omnidirectionally participated in the so-called "modernity of media," as he drew figures, blueprints, and illustrations and worked as a magazine editor and literary coterie within modern Korean literature in the 1930`s. On the basis of this investigation, we tried to clarify the patterns in Yi Sang`s dreams of writing. Yi Sang`s unique ideas about letters were incorporated into his works in various forms and expressed through his original literary language. Moreover, his ideas had a sociocultural impact at that time beyond the function of delivering literary meanings. In his essay, "Lingering Impressions of a Mountain Village," he expressed the natural mood that sprang up from rural society by replacing with metaphoric language acquired fromand sensitized by "urban emotions." Hence, various aspects of Yi Sang`s literature constituting the so-called "rhetoric of city" were patterned by reflecting urban phenomena in visual forms in many parts of his works. The metaphoric system of the "rhetoric of city" established the unique metaphor in the viewpoint of the new modernity by the emotions and senses of those living in a city in the 20th century, saying good-bye to the senses of the 19th century. The characteristic elements of Yi Sang`s literature in the area of Korean literature in the 1930`s, which resulted from various forms of letters and their application to literary works, can ultimately be considered ventriloquial reactions to the speed of the capitalistic society that was changing rapidly, as well as to the disturbance of time and the entanglement of space in the changing process. This is a key factor in Yi Sang`s literature as well as the novel writing pattern that advocated the autonomy of art as "objectless writing`" based on the letter sensibility and the sign game method. Moreover, the new form of literature realized by Yi Sang`s letter sensibility and his literary world still requires an interpretation from a novel point of view, in the sense that it was an abstract painting that expressed the uneven consciousness of those living in a city, generated from the regulatory system of capitalistic reason that was rapidly expanding in the urban space of Gyeong-seong in the 1930`s.

칸트 도덕철학의 관점에서 본 현행 인성교육의 문제점

문성학 새한철학회 2001 哲學論叢 Vol.23 No.1

최근 우리 교육계의 화두는 인성교육이다. 인간을 인간답게 만드는 것이 중요하다는 것이다. 그러나 과연 인간을 인간답게 만드는 기계적인 교육방법이 있는가 하는 것이 근본적인 의문으로 떠오른다. 칸트는 인간의 인간됨을 인격성이라 불렀으며, 이 인격성의 핵심은 도덕성이며, 도덕성의 핵심은 자유라고 말했다. 자유 없는 인격 없다. 그럼에도 불구하고 최근 우리 사회에서 광범위하게 실시되고 있는 '점수 따기 봉사활동'은 도덕성의 핵심인 자유를 부정하는 바탕 위에서 실시되고 있다는 근본적인 문제점을 갖고 있다. 이런 점에서 본다면 인간의 인격성과 도덕성의 핵심인 자유를 파괴하는 방식으로 인간을 인간답게 만들려는 봉사활동은 자기모순적 교육활동이라 하겠다. 또한 인성교육론자들은 인간다운 인간을 육성하기 위해서는 주당 1~2 시간씩 실시되는 정규 도덕교과를 통한 교육으로는 불가능하기 때문에, 전교과를 통해 인성교육이 실시되어야 한다고 주장하다. 이는 언뜻 듣기에 그럴듯한 말이지만, 이 주장 역시 인간을 길들여야 할 대상으로 간주하며 자유의 주체로 보지 않는다는 근본적인 문제점을 갖고 있다. 칸트는 인간이 인간답게 되는 것은 길들여짐에 의해서라기보다 근본적으로 사고의 혁명을 통한 자유의 각성에 의해서라고 생각한다. Recent slogan of educational field in our society is In-sung education, which should be taken to mean not 'character education' but 'humanity education' or 'personhood education'. Of course it is very important educational task to make a socialized person out of a biological man. However, it is highly questionable to find any mechanical process which enables us to make a person out of a man. There can be no such mechanical process. In the center of humanity there is morality and in the center of morality there is freedom of will. Therefore we can say that without freedom there can be no humanity. To speak otherwise, the essence of humanity is freedom. It is the essential teachings of Kantian moral philosophy. If we enquire into current educational movement named In-sung education from a viewpoint of Kantian moral philosophy, we can find some fatal defaults. The first of which is it's disregard of the freedom of moral agency. In-sung education do not prompt the freedom of moral agency rather demolish it. Second fatal default of In-sung education is that it lays too much emphasis on living etiquette. Not to mention, to make a courteous person of a pupil is not to be neglected. But it may not be the core part of moral education. In-sung education focused living etiquette unavoidably leads to taming education based on behaviorism. By the way, behaviorism, its representatives are J. B. Waston and B.F. Skinner, denies the free will of man. But if man can not show voluntary moral act, it will be an empty rhetoric to speak that man is the lord of all creation.

헌법 개정에 따른 북한의 교육이념 변화 : 국어와 공산주의 도덕 교과서를 중심으로 Focused on the Textbooks of Language & Ethics

권성아 한국교육과정학회 2003 교육과정연구 Vol.21 No.2

특히 국가이념이 비교적 많이 담겨 있는 공산주의 도덕과 국어 교육에 어떠한 변화가 일어났는가 하는 점을 성찰해보고자 한 것이다. 해방 이후 북한은, 1948년 9월 맑스-레닌주의에 입각한 헌법을 제정하여, 정부를 수립한 이래 몇 차례에 걸쳐 헌법을 개정하였다. 1) 1960년대 후반 ‘주체사상’을 확립하면서 이 이념을 첨가하기 위하여 1972년에, 2) 1980년대 후반 ‘조선민족제일주의’와 ‘우리 식 사회주의’를 외친 이후 소련이 붕괴되는 것을 지켜보면서 1992년에, 3) 김일성 사망 이후 ‘붉은기사상’으로 ‘강성대국론’의 입장을 띠면서 ‘유일사상’을 강화하기 위하여 1998년에 이루어졌다. 그 결과, 이들 교과서에서는 소련식 사회주의기에는 ‘프로레타리아 혁명’과 더불어 ‘일제 청산’이, 주체사상기에는 ‘공산주의적 혁명가’가, 민족제일주의기에는 ‘사회주의 · 공산주의 건설자’가, 그리고 강성대국론기에는 ‘주체혁명 위업 완수’가 주된 이념을 이루고 있는 것을 확인할 수 있었다. This study is focused on the changes of the educational ideologies shown in the North Korean textbooks, especially how they have been changed according as the Constitutional law has been revised. The North Korea established the law in 1948, which was based on Marx-hninism. I would like to call it 'the period of Soviet Socialism.' Since then, it has been changed three times. First, it was revised to introduce hnin+Juche Ideology in 1972, which can be called 'the period of Self-reliance Ideology.' Second, it was revised in 1992 and the revision was based on Juche ideology completely. It can be called 'the period of Nations First. 'Third, it was revised to reinforce Juche ideology in 1998. It can be called 'the period of Forceful Nation.' In the first period (1945-), they specified that the most important educational ideologies were 'proletarian revolution' and the 'liquidation of Japanese imperialism' in their constitution. In the second period (1967-), the most important educational ideology was to be a 'communistic revolutionist'. In the third period (1986-), the most important educational ideology was to be the 'socialistic-communistic construhr.' And in the forth period (1994-), the most important educational ideology is to accomplish the 'Juche revolution.' The educational ideologies shown in the North Korean textbooks have been changed according to the revisions of constitution. First, in the period of Soviet Socialism, they were focused on rejecting the Japanese-American imperialism, hostility towards bourgeoisie and beautification of I1 Sung Kim in their ''North Korean" language education. Second, in the period of Self-reliance Ideology, idolization of I1 Sung Kim was reinforced in them. Third, in the period of Nations First, they reinforced rejecting the Japanese-American imperialism and began to make an idol of Jung I1 Kim in them. Forth, after the death of I1 Sung Kim, in the period of Forceful Nation, they have deified I1 Sung Kim and strengthened idolization of Jung I1 Kim. Furthermore, in the education of ethics, most of textbooks begin with indoctrinating the ideas of I1 sung Kim and his son. They were focused on rejecting the Japanese-American imperialism, hostility toward bourgeoisie, and proletarian revolution. This inclination was exactly same as moral education. But their socialism and denunciation of revisionism was reinforced in its textbook, also.

三朝木版本考

李聖愛 이화여자대학교 한국문화연구원 1978 韓國文化硏究院 論叢 Vol.31 No.-

On this paper, it was studied separately in chronological order, characteristics of woodcut printing(木版) that had been published at Sung, Yuan, Ming(宋, 元, 明), three dynasties. First, during the Sung dynasty(A.D.960-1280), it was famous the small book (巾箱本)and we can easily see that even ancient books, reproducted by copying, had pictorial embellishment. We can say that Sung dynastys publication superior in the quality of paper, in the calligraphy style, typography, and in the contents of copybooks. Second, Yuan dynasty (A.D 1281-1367) was envented the chromatic books in general the fever skillfulness with which books were published during this dynasty are sometimes superior to those prevailing in Sung dynasty and the printing of auditorium was the best woodcut printing among books were published during this dynasty. Third, in Ming dynasty (A.D 1368-1662), the commercial publication was extreme with the universalization of the five-color printings. Finally, in order to get the data of woodcut printings study, this paper was recorded the important wood carvings of successive dynasties, thirty-five sheets and the tools of woodcut, six sheets.

성악 전공 학생의 가칭 시 음성의 SPR(Singing Power Ratio)에 관한 연구

조성미,정옥란,이상욱 한국음성과학회 2004 음성과학 Vol.11 No.4

This study attempted to provide a spectrum analysis for quantitative evaluation of singing voice quality of singing students rather than the presence or absence of the singer's formant. The regression analysis was used to analyse the relationship between ringing quality, SPR, and SPP of singing voice of college student subjects majoring in music. This study measured singing power ratio (SPR) in 41 singing students. Digital audio recordings were made in sung vowels for acoustic analyses. Each sample was judged by 1 experienced singing teacher and 4 voice pathologists on one semantic bipolar 7-point scales (ringing-dull). The results showed that the SPR and SPP had significant correlations with ringing Quality. The SPR had a significant relationship with ringing quality on singing voice in singing students. The SPR can be an important quantitative measurement for evaluating singing voice quality.

高麗中期의 民族敍事詩 : 東明王篇과 帝王韻紀의 硏究 A Study of old Korean Gests Dong-Myung-Pyun and Je-Wang-Woon-Ki

李佑成 成均館大學校 1962 論文集 Vol.7 No.-

Korean literature reaped a precious harvest of two splendid and long epic poems during the one century period from the late 12th to the late 13th century. These are Dong-Myung-Wang-Pyun (東明王篇), the Geste of King Dong-Myung by Yi, Kyu-Bo (1168-1241), and Je-Wang-Woon-Ki (帝王韻紀), the Geste of the Kings by Yi, Sung Hyoo (1224-1300). The Geste of King Dong-Myung clarifies in the opening chapters the remote genealogy of King Dong-Myung, hero and the founder of Koguryo; and in the main chapters, it depicts the King's history from the birth to his great work of foundation; and finally in the closing chapters, his history up to the coronation of King Luri who succeeded to his heroic works and also the impressing comments expressed by the poet. The Geste is written in Chinese poetry, composed of the main part of a little over two hundred and eighty lines and of the descriptive part of four hundred and thirty some lines. Each being a five-word line, the total Chinese word-characters used in the Geste amount to a length of three thousand six hundred (3,600). Je-Wang-Woon-Ki, the Geste of the Kings,(hereafter referred to as simply the Kings), consists of two volumes. The first volume carols the history of the ancient Chinese dynasties, from Bango (盤古) to Kum (金) and in the second volume, the history of Korea. The second volume is of two parts. The first part deals with the rise and fall of the Korean dynasties, starting from Dan-Goon (檀君), the remotes founder of Korea, to the dynasties of Wiman (衛滿), Sagoon (四群), Samhan (三韓) (Three-Kingdoms), Silla (新羅), Koguryo (高句麗), Bekje (百濟), later Koguryo, later Bekje and Balhe (渤海). The first part consists of two hundred and ten (210) seven-word lines, total character-words amounting to one thousand four hundred and sixty. The second part deals with the history of the period from the foundation of Koryo (高麗) down to the reign of King Choongyul (忠烈王) under which the poet lived. The second part is of seven hundred character-words in total, in one hundred and twenty (120) lines, each containing five words. The Geste and The Kings have attracted the attention of the scholar historians, both domestic and foreign, as the historical documents since much earlier days, but it is quite recently that they have come to be considered valuable from the viewpoint of literature. In fatc, they began to be revaluated as "folk epic" when the present author of this thesis published "A Study of the Generation of Yi, Kyu-Bo and Yi, Sung-Hyoo", at Pusan in 1956, and in the following year, Professor Chang, Duk-Soon made his thesis public under the title of "King Dong-Myung, an Epic", which found its place later in his "General Survey of Korean Literature". Quite recently, Professor Yi, Byung-gi presented a new viewpoint, in his "Complete History of Korean Literautre", that the Geste and the Kings are the truthful origin of "Kasa" (歌辭), the ancient folk poetry. About this new theory, however, the author would refrain from mentioning because it has no direct relation with the following thesis of the present author. The present author's interest lies rather in that these two poems in Chinese style should find a position with importance in the system of Korean literature, which has been so far neglected by the Korean literary scholars. A word about the thesis of Professor Chang, Duk-Soon. The thesis is sufficient enough to give the readers a profound understanding of the "Geste of King Dong-Myung" through his structural analysis of the narrative of King Dong-Myung and its detailed comparison with the western getse, which are done in his fluent, rich style. To the regret of the present writer, however, Professor Chang's studies on the Geste ended only in the field of said "analysis" and said "comparison", largely destitute of the due historical background of it. As the result, he ventured to ascribe the motive of the creation to a "nostalgic fidelity" of a Koryo-man to the prceeding Dynasty, Koguryo, and also to determine that the epic poem of the Koryo era was entirely an "accidental eruption of the 13th century". All the literary heritage is the products of the history. We cannot easily be contented by hastily treating our literary heritage. Therefore, the present writer particularly intends to examine the historical background of the Geste to comprehend the position of the poet's subjecthood and furhtermore grasp the true significance of the work from the viewpoint of resuscitated moving history of that age. A rough survey of the dynastic history of Koryo shows us that the Dynasty, since its foundation in 919 A.D., aimed high at expanding its territory towards the North as its state principle. This enterprising spirit of early Koryo had constantly been checked by the powerful suppression on the part of "Kuran"(契丹), and "Yojin"(女眞), two northern races. And without any chance, the Dynasty had to meet the Mongolian Aggression (1231-1256). In this warfare, the regime of "Choi"(崔氏) family ruled Koryo standing siege in KangWha Island. Choi's regime had resisted against the Aggressors thirty, long years before the Dynasty met its total defeat. And the former, the failure of the expansion policy was caused by the corruption and inability of the then ruling aristocracy; and the latter, the defeat at the hands of Mongolians, was brought about by the decrepitude of Royal House, and also by the reactionary bureaucrats who overthrew the Choi regime through treason. In the history of Koryo, however, we should not fail to observe the strong flow of the people's movements. During the period, 1128-1135, people urged the government to transfer the capital to Pyungyang, a border city, to face and suppress the enemy nation, "Kum" (金) (Yojin), and also they advocated that Koryo's King should be retitled as "emperor" like in China, setting up Koryo's own new era, which, till then, had been forbidden by Great China, the powerful dominator. Another incident of the people's movement is seen in heroic resistance against the enemy throughout the Mongolian Aggression. People fought at every part of the country in conjunction with the army, refusing to surrender to the Mongolians till the last. The high spirit and energy of the people had led to the formation of "Sam-Byul-Cho" Army which continued, in isolation from the government, its resistance war for four years until 1273. The 12th and 13th centuries mark the period of great trials suffered by the Korean race. The great spirit of resistance oppressed by the realities inevitably found it way to inwardness, and again was fermented to find its spout in the essence of literature. Yi, Kyu-Bo and Yi, Sung-Hyoo were the writers representing this troubled age, both of whom reached the greatness under favorable care of the Choiregime. They were "Rising Intellectuals" who heralded" New Officials", that is, the class of "Literary Intellectuals" during the second half period of Koryo. They were entirely different in character, from those old aristocrats who had held power during the first half period of the Dynasty. Therefore, these two literary men belonged to the transitional, progressive group of people who later prepared the seed-bed for the new culture. The new culture meant the culture for the people, while the old culture meant the culture forthe aristocrats. No wonder that folk epic such as the Geste and the Kings should be written by these "Rising Intellectuals", and not "accidental" at all. There is no objection in concluding that the Geste and the Kings both are the folk epic. However, we should discern the considerable difference which exists between these two poetical works, either in their subjects or either in their structure. The Geste carols one and single prototype, King Dong-Myung who was the hero of dynastic foundation; while the Kings deals with various, important historical happenings during the entire period from the earliest mythical foundation of the country by "Dangoon" down to the author's age. Here, just for the convenience's sake, the present writer take the liberty of calling the Geste a heroic poem; and the Kings, a history poem, regardless of the fact that a heroic poem and a history poem are essentially the same. Firstly, the writer desires to deal with the Geste laying stress on the following two points: (1) the method of the plot development, and (2) the characteristic of the prototype. In the heroic poem, the development of the plot differs according to the singularity or plurality of the hero prototype. When single, the plot develops towards the direction of the will of the hero; meanwhile, when plural, the plot becomes a succession of human contrasts, and collisions. In the Geste which is a biographic description of a King, the only prototype is King Dong-Myung himself. And the principal actions of the King are narrated in chronological order. However, Yi, Kyu-Bo, the author of the Geste tactfully dealt with the single hero additionally presenting his counterparts to produce a variety in the plot-flow. As the result, contrasts, collision occurs in succession constantly taking a new turn towards a third phase. The plot, therefore, constantly flows breaking the stalmate deadlock. Thus the Geste, which otherwise would have ended by an individuals biography, is heightened up to a realm of heroic poem. In the Geste, the poet succeeded in portraying the character of the hero. The willpower and ambition of the King as a hero are successfully expressed in his escape from Buyo,(扶餘) the capital, and in his founding of a new counrty and a new capital in the South and also in his fight against a neighboring state, "Biru-Kuk"(沸流國). The portrayal of the King's character as hero is vivid and acute in his strategy, violence, cruelty and egotism. The violent hero who exhausts every mean to accomplish his purpose falls easily, like a child, in the arms of his tender mother. Readers of the Geste are struck to find themselves disposed to agree with the hero's strategy, egotism and violence. In this, we are obliged to acknowledge the author's success in sculpturing the fresh, healthy, original humanity of the ancient type. The Geste is a success as a hero poem, but is still insufficient as a folk epic, that is, an epic of the Korean Race. The present writer is of opinion that King Dong-Myung certainly is a hero of a tribe, but not the common patriarch of the entire Korean Race. He is a heroic chief of the tribe of Koguryo which is the predecessor of Koryo "people" since it is evident, in history, that Koryo is the successor of Koguryo. And the author of the Geste so treated the King. In this strict sence, the Geste is, the present writer concludes, more of "heroic poem" than of "history poem". The great task of discovering the common patriarch of the entire race of this land was possible at the hand of Yi, Sung-Hyoo, a little later than Yi, Kyu-Bo's time. Yi, Sung-Hyoo described, with his wider range of view, the total historical activities of the entire Korean Race. In this sence, Je-Wang-Woon-Ki, the Kings is the comprehensive compilation of "folk epic", or perhaps, more properly, of "racial epic", and is characteristic of history poem. The Kings sets in its uttermost beginning Dangoon, as the sole patriarch of the entire Korean race, and clarifies that all the tribal states, which had ever existed in this land covering from northern end to south, are the equal descendants of Dangoon, the Great Patriarch. These tribal states mentioned in the Kings are Shira" (尸羅), "Koye" (高禮), "Ye" (濊), "Mek" (貊), "Buyo" (扶餘) and "Okju" (沃沮). Here, the position of Dangoon far surpasses, in height, that of King Dong-.Myunp. In Sam-Kuk-Sa-Ki (三國史記) (The History of Three-Kingdoms), not a word is mentioned about the racial patriarch. In Sam-Kuk-Yu.-Sa (三國遺事), another old history book, Dangoon is breifly mentioned but his dominion and successors are not intelligibly stated. It is very interesting to find that in the Kings, which was written only ten years later than Sam-Kuk-Yu-Sa, the myth of Dangoon is so surprisingly concrete. The formation of racial consciousness having its base on common Patriarch influenced greatly on the view of history to awaken the various tribes in constant conflict to the sense of homologue. History was no longer regarded by the dynastic unit. A new insight, after the Kings, was given to the view of history that a consistent flow of racial life, regardless of the rises and the falls of dynasties, formed the unending history of the Race. This new consciousness motivated the author of the Kings to begin at the remotest origin of the Race and trace all the way down through to his age, and have a long view towards the future of the race. Thus, the author viewed the complexity of the racial history, the extensiveness of its crosswise comprehension, the remoteness of its lengthwise survey, but he integrated them all in his Kings and reduced them all to Dangoon, the Racial Patriarch. . The Kings, this history poem, is indeed the greatest and the most valuable among all the works including Sam-Kuk-Sa-Ki and Sam-Kuk-Yu-Sa, that have ever been written by the hands of Korean prose writers. The 12th and 13th centuries represented by Yi, Kyu-Bo and Yi, Sung-Hyoo were the golden age of epic poetry in Korea. We regret, however, that this literary trend was not succeeded by their posterity. Epic poem died out with the death of those two poets, which results from the historical reality of Koryo Dynasty. Epic poetry is above all characteristic of collective consciousness rather than individual, for essentially it is a product of collective consciousness. The cosufferings and the co-resistance of the Korean race in the 12th and 13th centuries led the Race to the racial consciousness of common destiny-to the formation of a collective consciousness. Both heroic and history poems were based on this collective consciousness. Unless comes any split in this homologue, collective consciousness can be maintained. However, the historical reality of Koryo was different. The Mongolian invaders were the common enemy of the people of Koryo. Therefore the entire people rose and fought. But the ruling class of Koryo government forsook the people's volition to resist and shamelessly surrendered to the foreign aggressors. The government, even allied with the Mongolian army to destroy its own resisting army and people. By these means, the ruling class once more enjoyed the wealth and power under the grace of the Mongolian Empire; on the other hand, the detressed people suffered under the duplicated tax privations by both Koryo government and Mongolian colonial government. Here, the interests of the government and people were seriously conflicting. A total collapse came in the collective consciousness of the people as a race with common destiny. This tragic collapse, it meant the loss of the base on which was to grow the epic poetry. Thereafter, no epics were ever produced in the literature of Koryo, but its literature took two different flows: the one was Kyong-Ki-Che-Ka (景幾體歌), the literature of the ruling class; and the other, Chang-Ka (長歌) (meaning long ballad), which was the literature of the people. - The End -