ASSET SPECIFICITY AND CHANNEL INTEGRATION

Hidesuke Takata,Mark E. Parry 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2018 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2018 No.07

Introduction An important decision that a manufacturer has to make in distributing a product to customers is the degree of forward channel integration (Aulakh & Kotabe, 1997; Coughlan et al., 2001; John & Weitz, 1988). Transaction cost economics (TCE) developed by Williamson (1975, 1985, 1986, 1999) has been one of the leading theoretical frameworks used to explain the channel integration decision (Frazier, 1999; Watson et al., 2015). TCE is generally a theory for explaining the choice of an efficient governance structure in transactions and includes asset specificity, uncertainty, and frequency as its explanatory variables. According to Williamson (1985, 1986, 1999), much of the explanatory power of TCE is driven by asset specificity. TCE-based channel integration studies argue that as asset specificity increases, firms are expected to increase the degree of channel integration. This study proposes to extend existing research in four important ways. First, existing studies have not examined individual dimensions of asset specificity. This study examines two important dimensions discussed by TCE: human asset specificity and physical asset specificity. Second, existing studies have tended to measure asset specificity in a particular way (i.e., with a particular set of questionnaire items). This study examines the robustness of the estimated asset specificity-integration relationship to alternative measures of asset specificity. Third, existing studies have focused on firms in one country such as the United States, Canada, or Germany. This study empirically examines the roles and relative importance of human and physical asset specificity in channel integration in two countries with different cultures, the United States and Japan. Fourth, existing studies have not investigated the possibility of endogeneity between asset specificity and channel integration. This study tests whether asset specificity is endogenous in explaining channel integration through an instrumental variables and two-stage least squares (IV-2SLS) approach. Literature Review In the context of distribution channels, asset specificity refers to the extent to which durable, transaction-specific investments in human and/or physical assets are needed to distribute the product in question (John & Weitz, 1988; Klein et al., 1990; Shervani et al., 2007). Examples of such investments include (1) the time and effort employed to acquire the firm-specific, product-specific, and customer-specific knowledge needed for distribution activities, and (2) specialized physical equipment and facilities (e.g., warehouses, deliver vehicles, refrigeration equipment, demonstration facilities, and repair and service centers) (Anderson, 1985; Bello & Lohtia, 1995; Brettel et al., 2011a, 2011b; John & Weitz, 1988; Shervani et al., 2007; Williamson, 1985, 1986). According to TCE, when the assets needed to distribute a product are non-specific, the use of independent channels is a priori more efficient than the use of integrated channels based on the benefits of distribution specialists and competition in the market place (Anderson, 1985). Conversely, a high level of specific assets, whether human or physical, has important implications for the degree of channel integration. The primary consequence is to reduce a large number of relationships between a manufacturer and independent channel members to a small number of relationships, which may expose the transaction in question to opportunistic behavior. Because the unique productive value created by a high level of specific assets makes it costly to switch to a new relationship, the use of independent channels will not be effective as a safeguard against opportunism (John & Weitz, 1988; Shervani et al., 2007). Channel integration provides a safeguard against opportunism by permitting (1) the better monitoring and surveillance of integrated channels relative to independent channels, and (2) the reduction of profits from opportunistic behavior since employees in integrated channels do not ordinarily have claims to profit streams (John & Weitz, 1988). As a result, as asset specificity increases, manufacturers are expected to increase the degree of channel integration to exercise greater control over the channels (John & Weitz, 1988; Shervani et al., 2007). This leads to the following basic TCE hypothesis concerning asset specificity and channel integration: TCE hypothesis. Asset specificity will be positively related to the degree of channel integration. Existing studies of channel integration tend to provide support or partial support for the hypothesized positive relationship between asset specificity and channel integration. One limitation of key studies is that they have not fully explored the dimensions of asset specificity because they treat asset specificity as unidimensional or examine only one dimension of asset specificity. Specifically, Anderson and Schmittlein (1984), Anderson (1985), Anderson and Coughlan (1987), and Krafft et al. (2004) focus on human asset specificity. While John and Weitz (1988), Shervani et al. (2007), and Brettel et al. (2011a) consider both human and physical asset specificity in their theoretical discussions, their empirical analyses focus only on human asset specificity. Klein et al. (1990), Aulakh and Kotabe (1997), and Brettel et al. (2011a) use a single measure of asset specificity that contains distinct items measuring human and physical asset specificity. Importantly, none of these studies has examined the dimension of physical asset specificity while controlling for the impact of human asset specificity. These observations suggest that further research is needed that explicitly measures and evaluates the relative importance of human and physical asset specificity in the channel integration decision. Research Hypotheses Based on the above literature review, we seek to extend existing research by distinguishing between two types of asset specificity, human and physical asset specificity. As already explained, TCE and TCE-based channel integration studies argue that both human and physical asset specificity are positive drivers of the degree of channel integration. Thus, our research hypotheses are the following: Hypothesis 1. Human asset specificity will be positively related to the degree of channel integration. Hypothesis 2. Physical asset specificity will be positively related to the degree of channel integration. Research Methodology As shown in Table 1, previous empirical studies attempt to test the basic TCE hypothesis concerning asset specificity and channel integration using (1) a particular measure of asset specificity, (2) data from a single national survey of firms in the United States, Canada, or Germany, and (3) methods such as an ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis and a partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) approach. In contrast with these studies, we seek to test the above two hypotheses concerning two types of asset specificity and channel integration using (1) different measures of asset specificity, (2) data from parallel national surveys of firms in two countries with different cultures, the United States and Japan, and (3) the methods used in prior empirical analyses and an IV-2SLS approach, which is a widely accepted method for investigating the potential endogeneity problem of focal explanatory variables (Antonakis et al., 2010, 2014; Zaefarian et al., 2017). This research strategy is partly based on the guidelines for high-quality replication studies articulated by Bettis et al. (2016b). The aims are to assess the generalizability of important prior results using different survey data drawn from different research contexts and to assess the robustness of these results using different measures and methods, thereby providing important additional evidence that contributes to the establishment of repeatable cumulative knowledge (Bettis et al., 2016a, 2016b). We developed the survey questionnaire in several steps. Following John and Weitz (1988), Shervani et al. (2007), and Brettel et al. (2011b), the dependent variable, channel integration, was operationalized by the percentage of sales through direct channels. We measured the focal explanatory variable, asset specificity, in four ways: (1) a four-item scale of human asset specificity used by Shervani et al. (2007), (2) a four-item scale of physical asset specificity based on Bello and Lohtia (1995) and Klein et al. (1990), (3) a six-item scale of human and physical asset specificity used by Klein et al. (1990), and (4) a four-item scale of human and physical asset specificity used by Brettel et al. (2011a). We also included four control variables: environmental uncertainty, behavioral uncertainty, financial performance, and channel members’ capabilities. Based on existing studies, manufacturers of electronic and telecommunication, metal, and chemical products in industrial (business-to-business) markets were selected as the setting for the empirical test. The unit of analysis was the domestic channel integration decision made at a product-market level. Respondents were sales/marketing managers (or executives) knowledgeable about channel design and strategies. In the United States, a professional marketing research company administered the data collection. In Japan, respondents were surveyed by mail. In total, we obtained 235 usable responses from US managers and 279 responses from Japanese managers. Results and Conclusions Following similar studies (John & Weitz, 1988; Shervani et al., 2007), an OLS regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses. The results, shown in Table 1, exhibit significant explanatory power for each model. As expected, (1) human asset specificity exhibits significant positive relationships with the degree of channel integration in both the United States and Japan (Models 1 & 2). These findings support Hypothesis 1. Conversely, (2) physical asset specificity does not have the expected significant positive relationships with the degree of channel integration in both the United States and Japan (Models 1 & 3). These findings do not support Hypothesis 2. Also, (3) asset specificity (Klein et al., 1990) and (4) asset specificity (Brettel et al., 2011a), two composite measures of human and physical asset specificity, exhibit the expected significant coefficients (Models 4 & 5). Additionally, we conducted a similar analysis using a structural equation modelling approach. The results mirrored those of OLS regression, thus providing further support for it. To assess the problem of potential endogeneity between asset specificity and channel integration, we employed IV-2SLS. We used (1) the level of the product’s technical content and (2) the need for coordination between production and distribution activities as instruments for human/physical asset specificity. Our instruments were individually significant predictors of asset specificity and met the exclusion restriction. However, the endogeneity test revealed no evidence of endogeneity. Thus, asset specificity was treated as exogenous in the model. In summary, our preliminary results suggest that human asset specificity, not physical asset specificity, is relevant to the channel integration decision. This finding is significant in that TCE-based channel integration studies tend to measure only one type of asset specificity. We are currently conducting additional analyses to better understand the relationship between human and physical asset specificity, for example, (1) the effects of human and physical asset specificity on different kinds of direct distribution, and (2) a multiple equation model in which human asset specificity is a function of physical asset specificity and direct distribution is a function of both human and physical asset specificity. We believe that our results will have important implications for the ways in which managers approach the channel integration decision.

Statistical inference of acupoint specificity: forward and reverse inference

Ye-Chae Hwang,Ye-Seul Lee,Yeonhee Ryu,이인선,채윤병 한국한의학연구원 2020 Integrative Medicine Research Vol.9 No.1

Background: The acupoint specificity has been considered important issue in acupuncture research. In clinical aspects, it is essential to identify which acupoints are associated specifically with a particular disease. The present study aimed to identify the specificity of acupoint selection (forward inference) and the specificity of acupoint indication (reverse inference) from the online virtual diagnosis experiment. Methods: Eighty Korean Medicine doctors conducted the virtual medical diagnoses provided for 10 different case reports. For forward inference, the acupoints prescribed for each disease were quantified and the data were normalised among 30 frequently used acupoints using Z-scores. For reverse inference, diseases for each acupoint were quantified and the data were normalized among 10 disease using Z-scores. Results: Using forward inference we demonstrated the specificity of acupoint selection in each disease. Using reverse inference we identified the specificity of acupoint indication in each acupoint. In general, a certain acupoint can be selected specifically for a particular disease, and it has a specific indication for the disease. However, the specificity of acupoint indication and the specificity of acupoint selection are not always identical. Conclusions: The selection of an acupoint for a particular disease does not imply that the acupoint has specific indications for that disease. Inferring the specificity of acupoint indication from clinical observations should be considered.

Korean Nominal Morphology and Specificity: A Phase-based Approach

( Jong Il Kwon ) 경남대학교 인문과학연구소 2014 人文論叢 Vol.33 No.-

This paper explores the semantic nature of Korean bare NPs affixed by certain nominal markers such as the topic-nun, the nominative-ga, the accusative-lul, and the null case -ø. It is quite clear that the specificity interpretation of Korean bare NPs correlates with their nominal markers. I propose here that depending on their semantic strength, the nominal markers can be classified into three subtypes; namely, strong, weak, and weakest. The strong marker -nun, in particular, always triggers a specific reading of bare NPs while the weakest marker -ø can never get a specific reading. The weak markers, -ga and -lul, can induce either a specific reading or a non-specific reading, according to the previous discourse context. On the other hand, I presents a phase- based multiple spellout approach to the specificity of bare NPs. Following Diesing`s (1992) Mapping Hypothesis, I assume that specific NPs are structurally higher than non-specific NPs. More specifically, I suggest here that if a head of phase (e.g. C or little v) carries an uninterpretable strong feature (i.e. [-Spec]), every bare NP bearing a specificity feature should be internally merged to the edge of the phase, and hence it has a specific reading. In contrast, bare NPs remaining in the spellout domain of a phase (e.g. TP or VP) must be interpreted as non-specific. That is, the spellout domain is an crucial semantic boundary between specific and non-specific bare NPs.

Intervention Effects and Specificity Effects in Wh-questions

Min Jegal 서울대학교 언어교육원 2017 語學硏究 Vol.53 No.2

Specificity effects are a widespread phenomenon, both in overt and covert syntax, across all languages. This paper focuses on the cross-linguistic specificity effects found in overt syntax1) and questions why the specificity property of a moved wh-phrase leads to immunity to syntactic constraints involved in “Intervention.” I contend that a tendency for a specific phrase to override intervention effects lies in the inactiveness of its copy in the original position. This argument is supported by a large amount of empirical data: anti-reconstruction effects of specific wh-words and adjunction to outer vP-domain of specific quantifiers. When a wh-phrase is specific, its inactive original copy does not form a chain of movements, which permits the specific phrase to be out of the scope of a potential intervener in a relevant phase domain. This analysis is able to derive all specificity-related sentences that are free from intervention effects, thereby reconciling apparently conflicting examples under existing feature-based analyses such as Rizzi’s (2013) fRM and providing more consistent explanations on specificity effects.

The Impact of Firm Governance Mode on Technological Performance in the face of Asset Specificity

박진규 한국경영교육학회 2010 경영교육연구 Vol.62 No.-

Much previous literature has long proposed that there exist relationships between asset specificity and governance mode decisions. In spite of the wealth of studies regarding the impact of asset specificity on firm governance mode choice, very little empirical research has been examining the impact of alignments between asset specificity and firm governance mode decisions on technological performance. Given the limited evidence on the consequences of firm governance mode decisions on technological performance, this study addresses following research questions: (1) In the face of asset specificity, are firms likely to pursue hierarchy mode over market mode? (2) Do firm governance mode decisions really affect technological performance in the face of asset specificity? We draw on TCE (Transaction Cost Economics) and RBV (Resource Based View). And to test our arguments, we investigate the U.S. mountain bicycle driving-train set industry from 1980 to 1990. In order to efficiently deal with endogeneity (self-selection) issue, this study employs Heckman (1979)'s two-stage regression method. Our findings are quite different from the arguments that are generally accepted in the previous literature. Accordingly, this study provides meaningful and valuable implications, compared to the previous literature. Most previous literature has treated the theoretical model in a one-way direction, meaning that facing asset specificity, firms with hierarchy governance modes perform better than firms with alternative modes of governance. This increases the likelihood of firms pursuing the hierarchy governance mode. Different from the general expectation of previous literature, we firstly find that firms pursuing hierarchy mode in the face of high asset specificity showed better technological performance than firms pursuing market mode. Secondly, despite relative advantages of hierarchy mode over market mode, firms, however, did not show a strong tendency to purse hierarchy mode over market mode in the face of asset specificly. Given that most previous literature is in the one-way directional research, the mixed results given in this research therefore suggest the necessity for more careful theoretical and empirical investigation of the relationships between asset specificity and firm governance mode choices and of the impact of firm governance mode decisions on performance, especially given its theoretical and managerial impacts.

장소특정적 환경조형물에 관한 연구 - 포천아트밸리 환경조형물 중심으로-

문희숙 한국일러스아트학회 2012 조형미디어학 Vol.15 No.1

The Place Specificity is a work to rely on meaning and form at the installed specific place. The Place Specificity would rely on a goodly portion of space that installed as how looks and what means. The important point of the space is the size of the space, the general nature, a combination of material, practical use of the past context, and the part of historical political occasions. The environmental Sculpture is closely related to the installed place so that could get the point of surrounding environment and space context. Also, the environmental Sculpture is not its own, but settled the condition as the space nature and user behavior. This Study would be analysed the environmental sculpture at Pochon Art Balley as based on such theoretical foundation. Pochon Art Balley is the place that the nation's first eco-friendly Complex Cultural Art Space and lots of installed environmental sculpture as the place specificity. Presently, the Pochon Art Balley is just facing on introduced manage of the Art Balley as the spread of the Culture and Art Composition manage through the time established of infrastructure. Art Balley would be run by constructed the place-specificity that Pure Artist constructed mainly environmental sculpture through sculpture Symposium and local crafts skilled workers developed mainly the contents of environmental sculpture through workshop. Pochon Art balley is upcoming special events and new contents so that would be facing on mature stage as connect and develop a local specificity. This study, at this time, would be analysed the place-specificity environmental sculpture at Pochon Art Balley, after then Place-specificity as the work of art having publicity of the environmental sculpture, it should be expected to analogize imaginary and inferential fator than emphasized fixed physical position on the sculpture of unicity, permanency, immobility. 장소 특정적이란 작품이 설치된 특정 장소에 의미와 형식을 기대고 있는 작품을 말한다. 장소특정성은 작품이 어떻게 보이는지와 무엇을 의미하는지가 작품에 놓이는 공간 배치에 상당 부분 기대고 있다는 뜻이다. 공간에 중요한 요소는 공간의 크기, 일반적 특성, 구성하는 재료, 과거 맥락의 활용, 역사적 정치적으로 중요한 사건에서의 역할 등이 있다. 환경조형물은 설치장소와 밀접한 관계를 갖고 있으며 주변 환경과 장소적 맥락을 가지는 요소로 파악 가능하다. 또한 환경조형물 자체보다는 장소적 특성과 이용자 행태에 의해 관람 조건이 결정되어진다. 본 연구는 이러한 이론적 토대를 근거로 포천 아트 밸리의 환경조형물을 분석하였고 선진사례를 통해 장소 특정적 환경조형물의 특성을 살펴보았다. 포천아트밸리는 국내 최초의 친환경 복합 문화 예술 공간으로 조성된 곳이며 장소 특정적 환경조형물이 많이 설치된 장소이다. 현재 포천아트밸리는 기반시설의 확립시기를 거쳐 문화예술창작 운영을 확대하는 아트밸리 도입 운영기를 맞고 있다. 순수 예술인이 주축이 된 조각 심포지엄을 통한 환경조형물 조성과 지역 석공예기능인이 주축이 된 석공예대전을 통한 환경조형물의 콘텐츠 개발로 아트밸리는 장소특정성이 구축되어 운영되어지고 있다. 앞으로 포천아트밸리는 전문 행사 및 신규 콘텐츠를 유치하고 이를 지역 특정성과 연계 개발하는 성숙기를 맞아야 한다. 본 연구는 이러한 시점에서 포천아트밸리의 장소 특정적 환경조형물을 분석하고 장소 이후의 환경조형물을 공공성을 지닌 미술 작품으로서 조각의 단일성, 영구성, 부동성 고정된 물리적 위치를 강조하기보다는 가상적인, 추론적 요소를 유추하기를 기대한다.

인터미디어성(intermediality) 을 통한 영화의 특정성(specificity) 재발명

박제철 영상예술학회 2008 영상예술연구 Vol.12 No.-

미디어 특정성 개념은 통상 미디어 상호작용을 설명하지 못하고 본질론적 가정에 의존한다는 비판을 받아왔다. 본 논문은 이런 통념을 넘어서 인터미디어성의 개념에 대한 검토를 통해 미디어 특정성 개념을 미디어 상호작용을 내포하는 역동적 개념으로 재정의하는 것을 그 목적으로 한다. 미디어 특정성 개념의 핵심은 개별 미디어에 관한 본질론적 가정에 있다기보다는 새로운 경험 형식의 가능성에 있다고 볼 수 있다. 이렇게 볼 때 그 개념은 새로운 변모 가능성을 이미 내포하고 있다고도 볼 수 있다. 미디어 특정성을 미디어 상호작용을 내포하는 것으로 고려하려 할 때 인터미디어성 개념은 결정적이다. 앙드레 고드로/필립 마리온과 이본느 스필만이 주장하듯이 인터미디어성 개념을 통해 우리는 상이한 미디어의 복합적인 중첩 과정을 미디어 특정성과 관련하여 성찰할 수 있다. 고드로/마리온의 논의에 따르면 인터미디어 실천은 미디어 특정성을 무효화시키지 않고서도 일어날 수 있다. 인터미디어를 미디어 사이의 변형적 상호작용으로 정의하는 스필만에 의하면 인터미디어는 미디어 특정성의 무효화가 아니라 그것의 변형을 함축한다. 아울러 인터미디어성을 슬라보예 지젝의 이른바 “시차적 조망”의 한 사례로 이해한다면 그것은 이제 미디어 특정성과 변증법적 관계 속에 있는 것으로 판명된다. 인터미디어성은 이제 주어진 미디어가 다른 미디어와 조우할 때 억압된 그 자신의 잠재력을 실현하는 계기를 지칭하는 용어가 된다. 영화사는 영화의 특정성이 다양한 인터미디어 실천을 통해 거듭 재발명되어온 많은 사례를 보여준다. 네 편의 인터미디어 영화, <마부제 박사의 증언>(프리츠 랑, 1931), <방파제>(크리스 마르케, 1962), <캘린더>(아톰 에고이얀, 1993), <괴물>(봉준호, 2006)은 그 과정을 보여주는 탁월한 실례들이다. 그 영화들에서 목소리, 사진, 홈 비디오, CG를 기존의 영화 형식에 병합함으로써 영화는 그 자신의 망각된 잠재력을 발견하고 실현할 수 있게 되었다. The notion of medium specificity has been critiqued for its reliance on its essentialist presupposition. The purpose of this paper is to redefine the notion as a dynamic concept that involves media interactions particularly through the concept of intermediality. The kernel of the notion of medium specificity lies not so much in its essentialist premise but in its emphasis on the possibility of a new form of experience. In this respect, the term already implies a possibility of transformation. 'Intemediality' is crucial for the redefinition of 'medium specificity' so as to involve media interaction. As Andre Gaudreault/Phillippe Marion and Yvonne Spielmann argue, the notion of intermediality allows us to reflect on the complex overlapping of media in relation to medium specificity. For Gaudreault/Marion, intermedial practices could happen without the annihilation of medium specificity. For Spielmann, intermedia as the transformative interaction among media not so much annihilates medium specificity but transforms it. Moreover, when intermediality is understood as a kind of "parallax view" that Slavoj Zizek proposes, it turns out to be in a dialectical relationship with medium specificity. Intermediality now becomes a term designating a moment that a given medium realizes its own primordially repressed aspects, that is, revolutionizes itself at the encounter with another medium. Throughout the history of cinema, the specificity of cinema has constantly undergone its reinvention through various intermedial practices. The four intermedial films, The Testament of Dr. Mabuse (Fritz Lang, 1931), La Jete챕 (Chris Marker, 1962) and Calendar (Atom Egoyan, 1993), The Host (Bong Joon-ho, 2006) remarkably illustrate this process. In those films, the incorporations of voice, photograph, home video, and computer graphic into existing forms of cinema enable cinema to discover and to realize its forgotten potentials.

화석연료 보조금에 대한 국제통상법적 접근: 특정성 요건을 중심으로

박경진 한국법정책학회 2023 법과 정책연구 Vol.23 No.3

2022년 6월 WTO 다자적 규범으로 새롭게 추가된『수산보조금협정(Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies)』이 등장하였다. 수산보조금협정은 제1조를 통해 WTO 『보조금 및 상계관세협정(Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, 이하, 보조금협정)』상의 정의를 그대로 반영하고 있다. 하지만, 수산보조금협정은 WTO 보조금협정과 달리 지속가능성을 우선에 둔 협정으로, 그 협상과정에서 국제통상체제가 명시하고 있는 특정성 요건이 소위 친환경 보조금을 활발하게 활용하고 있는 오늘날의 현실을 반영하고 있지 못하다는 문제가 제기되기도 하였다. 이러한 배경을 바탕으로 본고는 WTO 보조금협정 상 특정성 요건을 검토해보고, 통상이 기후변화를 비롯한 국제사회의 지속가능한 목표 달성을 배가하는 역할(force multiplier)을 해야한다는 입장을 강화하는 방안을 모색해보고자 한다. WTO 보조금협정은 제2조에서 특정성을 규율하고 있다. 특정성은 크게 기업 또는 산업 특정성과 지역적 특정성으로 구분되며, 금지보조금은 특정성이 추정된다. 특정성 요건은 보조금으로 인해 발생되는 무역제한성 또는 무역왜곡을 감축·철폐해야 한다는 논리를 근거로 등장하였다. 하지만 최근에는 기후변화 이슈가 국제사회의 주요 관심사로 부상하면서 다양한 국가들이 기후변화 완화 및 적응을 위한 보조금을 적극 활용하고 있다. 이에 따라 시장을 교정하는 보조금과 시장을 왜곡하여 궁극적으로 보호주의적 효과를 초래하는 보조금을 구별하는데 특정성 테스트가 적절한지에 대한 의문이 높아지고 있다. 예를 들어 재생에너지 생산 보조금의 경우, 일반적으로 생산자에게 지급되어 특정성 요건이 문제가 되는 반면, 화석연료 보조금의 경우 대부분 소비자에게 지급되고 있어, 환경에 해로운 영향을 끼침에도 불구하고 WTO 규율의 받지 않게 되는 문제점이 제기되고 있다. 오늘날 기후변화 이슈는 국제사회의 최대 관심사로 부상하였고, 이에 따라 통상-환경-에너지 관계가 다시금 주목받고 있다. 이러한 논의는 국제통상질서가 특정성 요건을 다시 평가해야 한다는 목소리에 힘을 싣고 있다. 이는 향후 수산보조금협정 이행 동향과 WTO 차원에서 이루어지는 화석연료 보조금 논의 과정을 통해 더욱 구체화 될 전망이므로 관련 사항들을 지속적으로 모니터링해 나가야 할 것이다. 나아가 화석연료 보조금 정책 운영 및 상계관세 적용 및 운영에 있어 이러한 국제사회 논의사항을 적극 참고해 나가야 할 것이다. The definition of subsidies varies among countries and international organizations. However, the WTO, with 164 contracting members, has the『Agreement on Subsidy and Countervailing Measures (hereinafter the WTO Subsidy Agreement)』, which provides the definition of the subsidy. This definition is also incorporated into the『Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies』, a new multilatral trade norm concluded in June 2022. Unlike the WTO Subsidy Agreement, the『Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies』is the first agreement centered on the sustainability within the WTO context. During the negotiation process of this agreement, the international community recognized that the specificity requirement, in the Article 2 of the WTO Subsidy Agreement, does not reflect the current reality of actively using so-called environment-friendly subsidies. Given this background, this paper aims to review the specificity requirement of the WTO Subsidy Agreement and explores ways to strengthen its position, ensuring that trade should be a force multiplier towards achieving the sustainable goals of the international community. The specificity is broadly categorized into corporate or industrial specificity and regional specificity. The specificity requirement has been developed based on the logic that trade restrictions or trade distortions caused by subsidies should be reduced or eliminated. However, as climate change issues have been emerged as a major concern of the international community, various countries increasingly employ subsidies to respond to the climate change. Consequently, the question of whether the specificity test is appropriate to distinguish between subsidies that correct the market and those that distort the market, ultimately have protectionist effects. Trade-environment-energy relationship, which has gained newfound attention due to the rise of climate change issues is driving the call for a reevaluation of the specificity requirement in the international trade order. This is expected to intensify through future discussions during implementing the『Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies』 and in the ongoing discussions about fossil fuel subsidies within the WTO context. These changes should be taken into account when formulating domestic policies on fossil fuel subsidies or countervailing measures.

Indefinites and Specificity Revisited

윤영은 한국언어정보학회 2007 언어와 정보 Vol.11 No.2

The semantic literature on definiteness and specificity shows that the former is relatively an established notion, whereas the latter is still a vague notion that needs to be more clarified and confirmed. Given this, Ionin (2006) argues for the reality of specificity based on the informal use of this. She proposes this in spoken English as a specificity marker which has a semantic feature indicating "peaker intent to refer" and "noteworthiness." She also provides as evidence the results of some crosslinguistics studies including an L2 acquisition study with both L1-Russian and L1-Korean L2-English learners. However, this paper will argue that the informal use of this does not seem to mark specificity according to Ionin's definition of specificity. It will also be argued that the L2 acquisition study cannot be used as evidence for the reality of specificity. Based on these arguments, this paper will try to redefine specificity, based on the notions of existence and uniqueness.

Indefinites and Specificity Revisited

Yoon, Young-Eun Korean Society for Language and Information 2007 언어와 정보 Vol.11 No.2

The semantic literature on definiteness and specificity shows that the former is relatively an established notion, whereas the latter is still a vague notion that needs to be more clarified and confirmed. Given this, Ionin (2006) argues for the reality of specificity based on the informal use of this. She proposes this in spoken English as a specificity marker which has a semantic feature indicating "peaker intent to refer" and "noteworthiness." She also provides as evidence the results of some crosslinguistics studies including an L2 acquisition study with both L1-Russian and L1-Korean L2-English learners. However, this paper will argue that the informal use of this does not seem to mark specificity according to Ionin's definition of specificity. It will also be argued that the L2 acquisition study cannot be used as evidence for the reality of specificity. Based on these arguments, this paper will try to redefine specificity, based on the notions of existence and uniqueness.