Islamic Leadership, Islamic Work Culture, and Employee Performance: The Mediating Role of Work Motivation and Job Satisfaction

Sih Darmi ASTUTI,Ali SHODIKIN,Maaz UD-DIN 한국유통과학회 2020 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.7 No.11

This study aims to examine the influence of Islamic leadership and Islamic work culture on employee performance through work motivation and job satisfaction. This study was conducted at Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN) Walisongo Semarang, Indonesia, because so far, there is still very limited research on the relationships between Islamic leadership, work culture, and work motivation in educational personnel performance. The educational personnel performance is expected to increase at UIN Walisongo Semarang with continuous efforts to improve to survive and develop as much as possible. The population of this study was all educational personnel at UIN Walisongo Semarang, Indonesia. Of 186 people, only 127 people were involved in this study. The research method used was a survey method using primary data collected through questionnaires. This study’s analysis technique employed multiple linear regression. The results uncovered that, out of the eight hypotheses proposed, six hypotheses were accepted. Islamic leadership and Islamic work culture were found to have no direct effect on employee performance. Besides, work motivation and job satisfaction became essential factors mediating Islamic leadership and Islamic work culture on employee performance. Spiritual values in leadership inspire employees to build the organization’s vision and create job satisfaction, which in turn impacted employees’ performance.

성과배분으로서 경영성과급의 임금성에 대한 고찰 -‘근로의 대가성’ 본질을 중심으로-

김희성,성대규 노동법이론실무학회 2022 노동법포럼 Vol.- No.35

The legal decision on wages should start from its determination criterion that “the generation of obligation to pay money and valuables should be deemed as directly or closely related to work supply,” which is an intrinsic judgment of remuneration for work. In addition, the “subjectivity of the work” and the “uncertainty,” which are respectively the intrinsic attributes of wages and performance-based incentives, are contradictory properties (Eigenschaft). That is, these two properties cannot be compatible within the single concept of money and valuables, and if one property is recognized, then the other property must be rejected. Any money or valuable paid because it is “directly” or “closely” related to the supply of work may be recognized as wages. “Directly” related means there are no intervening factors between the supply of work and the payment of wages, and “closely” related means the relationship between the supply of work and the payment of wages is so close that it can be recognized as being “directly” related. Thus, if there are decisive factors that cannot be controlled at all by individual workers between “the supply of work” and “the payment of money or valuables”—for example, if the company’s management ability to bear all management risks, the size and contribution of the company’s capital or assets, and the overall market conditions must be taken into consideration—then money and valuables cannot be recognized as wages. Distinguished from wages, the legal nature of performance-based incentives should be understood as a three-stage structure: “agreement on performance-based incentives (1st stage),” “accomplishment of indeterminate conditions of achievement of business performance as the main content of the agreement (2nd stage),” and “the payment (distribution) of performance-based incentives according to the payment criteria of the incentives (3rd stage).” In this study, contingency and temporality, which are intrinsic attributes of performance-based incentives, are properties that are incompatible with the intrinsic attributes of wages, such as “subjectivity of work (direct or close relation to the supply of work),” “certainty of payment obligations,” and “continuity/regularity of payment.” Nonetheless, recent relevant precedents have drawn contradictory conclusions in similar or identical cases: (1) The ruling on the SK Hynix case concluded that performance-based incentives do not belong to wages based on the accurate understanding of performance-based incentives. This study thinks this is a fair ruling. (2) On the other hand, the ruling on the Hyundai Marine & Fire Insurance case and the second lawsuit case of Samsung Electronics affirmed that performance-based incentives are wages. This study does not agree with this ruling though. As indicated above, I am suspicious that the court took an excessively broad interpretation in judging the factual relationship even though it considered the criteria of “subjectivity of work (directness or closeness),” “certainty of payment obligations,” and “continuity/regularity of payment” to judge wage characteristics. In particular, if this study accept accomplishing a condition precedent, such as the achievement of business performance as the intrinsic attribute of “wages,” it will cause an unfair result in that the coincidental “risk from poor business performance” is passed on to the workers even though wages should be paid immediately in exchange for work provided for a “definite period.” In the end, this study thinks that there is no choice but to define performance-based incentive as “performance sharing.” Above all, only when this point becomes a firm criterion can a unified judgment be made and, ultimately, legal stability enforced.

항공사 승무원의 업무과부하와 서비스 성과: 조절변수의 탐색

류성민(Seongmin Ryu) 대한경영학회 2021 大韓經營學會誌 Vol.34 No.5

가족친화적 고성과작업시스템에 대한 듀얼아젠다 접근

노세리(Se ri No),이상민(Sang-Min Lee) 한국인사·조직학회 2011 인사조직연구 Vol.19 No.3

기업의 경영활동은 경제적 성과에 초점을 두고 수행되어 왔지만, 경제적, 사회문화적 환경의 변화 속에서 기업이 지속적으로 가치를 향상시키기 위해서는 경제적 성과뿐 아니라, 사회적 성과도 함께 고려해야 한다. 기업의 중요한 이해관계자인 근로자와 그 가족들의 가치관이 점차 일 중심에서 일과 삶의 조화를 중시하는 방향으로 변하면서 근로자들의 일과 삶의 조화는 기업이 다루어야 할 이슈로 대두되고 있다. 이제까지 기업의 경제적 성과 향상을 지향하고자 하는 노력은 주로 고성과작업시스템의 논의를 통하여 근로자들의 일과 삶의 조화의 이슈는 가족친화 경영을 통하여 다루어져 왔으며, 이를 통합적으로 다루고자 하는 시도는 매우 부족하였다. 이는 기업에게 있어 근로자들의 일과 삶의 조화와 경제적 성과 추구는 대립적으로 보였기 때문이다. 경제적 성과 향상과 일과 삶의 조화를 동시에 지향 할 수 있도록 작업시스템을 재설계 하고자 하는 관점을 듀얼아젠다 접근이라고 한다. 본 연구에서는 듀얼아젠다 접근을 통해, 기업이 경제적 성과와 근로자의 일과 삶의 조화를 동시에 추구할 수 있도록 고성과작업시스템과 가족친화경영을 통합한 작업시스템을 제시하고 그 효과를 측정하고자 한다. 실증분석은 「2007 사업체패널조사」 자료를 바탕으로 총 1,741개의 표본을 대상으로 실시하였다. 분석결과에 따르면, 고성과작업시스템과 가족친화경영은 각각 경제적 성과 향상에 긍정적인 영향을 주는 것으로 나타났다. 그러나 양성평등 수준으로 측정된 근로자의 일과 삶의 조화에 대하여 가족친화경영은 긍정적인 영향을 주는 것으로 나타났지만, 고성과작업시스템은 부분적으로 부정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 마지막으로 고성과작업시스템과 가족친화경영은 일과 삶의 조화에 대하여 긍정적인 상호작용효과를 보였다. 연구결과에 따르면 고성과작업시스템은 근로자의 일과 삶의 조화에 부정적인 영향을 줄 수 있다고 볼 수 있다. 이를 극복하기 위해 조직은 가족친화경영의 도입을 고려하고 나아가 가족친화적 고성과작업시스템의 구축을 통하여 지속가능성 향상을 기대할 수 있을 것이다. 본 연구는 이제까지 조직의 경제적 성과 향상에 초점을 두고 논의되던 고성과작업시스템의 한계를 인식하고, 통합적인 관점을 통해 기업이 경제적 성과 향상뿐 아니라 일과 삶의 조화도 동시에 추구할 수 있는 작업시스템을 제시하였다는 점에서 의의가 있다. 연구의 한계점은 본문의 마지막에서 논의하도록 하겠다. Corporations traditionally carry out tasks that mainly focus on economic profit and organizational efficiency. However, corporations should consider social performance as well as economic profit to get sustainability of the firm in an uncertain and unstable business environment. Social performance, which corporations aim in the 21st century can be achieved by managing various stakeholder. Currently, the values of employees and their family, which are important to stakeholder, are changing from only work-oriented to both work and family -oriented. Thus, employees' work and life balance has become vital. This value change causes a transformation of the firm's culture and human resource management. Managing work and life balance for the employee has become an important issue for stakeholder and corporation. Until now, we have considered high-performance work system as a respond to the economical profits. And work and life balance is to the family-friendly management. However, an attempt to put economic performance and work and life balance in one picture was insufficient. These two are actually compatible to each other. Excessive pursue of economic profits may disrupt healthy work and life balance of employee and work and life balance seems to be achieved by sacrificing their economic profits. Dual agenda approach is a perspective of redesigning corporations work system that can achieve adversarial concepts of economic profits and work and life balance. In this research, through dual agenda approach, we will present family-friendly high-performance work system which could enhance organizational effectiveness and worker's work and life balance. This study was carried out with 「2007 Workplace Panel Survey from」 the Korea Labor Institute. The result of empirical analysis can be summarized as following. First of all, both high-performance work system and family-friendly management have positive effect on economic profit. Family-friendly management has positive effect on work and life balance. However, high-performance work system has negative effect on work and life balance. Finally, high-Performance work system and family-friendly management have interaction effect on work and life balance. The noticeable result of empirical analysis is that high-performance work system has negative effects on work and life balance. High-performance work system makes employees to commit to their work and lead to increase the work time, and builds a culture leading to competition among employees. Consequently, these characteristic of work system cannot make employees' work and life balance. Thus, family-friendly management should be considered along with high-performance work system to enhance not only economic profits but also work and life balance. This is because family-friendly management has positive effects on economic profits and it reduces negative effects that high performance work system has on the work and life balance. Thus, a need to integrate high-performance work system and family-friendly management is essential for enhancing economic profits of corporations and employees work and life balance. With the combined approach, the corporations can expect sustainability.

Factors Affecting Work Performance During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Empirical Study from Indonesia

SUPANTO, Fajar,LEGOWO, Ignatius Bendu Risa Putra,FIRDAUS, Muhammad Rizki Korea Distribution Science Association 2022 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.9 No.7

The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of the principal's democratic leadership style, teacher competency, work discipline, and work environment on teacher performance during the pandemic. Using the proportional random sampling strategy, a sample of 468 respondents consisted of kindergarten teachers, elementary school teachers, junior high school teachers, junior high school teachers, and high school/vocational school teachers. The study revealed that the principal's democratic leadership style, teacher competence, work discipline, and work environment substantially impact teacher performance. However, the principal's democratic leadership style does not affect teacher performance, whereas teacher competence, work discipline, and work environment have a minor impact on teacher performance. Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic, work discipline is the most critical variable influencing teacher performance. The findings of this study suggest that the principal's democratic leadership style, teacher competence, work discipline, and work environment have a positive impact on teacher performance during the pandemic. During the COVID-19 pandemic, work discipline is the most important variable influencing teacher performance. Considering that democratic leadership has no effect on teacher performance and that this leadership style is widely used by school principals in the world of education, it is assumed that there is no effect on teacher performance.

집단수준의 직무열의와 집단성과와의 관계에 대한 연구: 집단수준의 OCB와 팀 몰입의 역할

신민정,배범수 한국인사관리학회 2019 조직과 인사관리연구 Vol.43 No.4

Work engagement is positive, fulfilling work-related employee’s mind state, which is pervasive and persistent affective-cognitive state that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption. Previous research have investigated whether individual level of work engagement brings positive consequences to employees as well as organizations. While a vast amount of research has studied the relationship between an individual work engagement and personal outcomes, little attention has been paid to group level of studies and potential mediators between work engagement and performance. To fill this gap, this study investigates how group-level of work engagement affects team performance. On the basis of theories about the social information processing theory and emotional contagion, we predict that the group level of work engagement is positively relate to their team performance. In addition, we propose that a group level of OCB mediates the relationship between the group level of work engagement and team performance, and the relationship between the group level of work engagement and OCB would be stronger when team commitment is high. Data were collected from 80 teams in Korea public institutions using two sets of questionnaires which were distributed to team managers and team members, respectively. The results showed that the group level of work engagement positively related to team performance and group level of OCB mediated the relationship between the work engagement and team performance. Lastly, the positive influence of group level of work engagement on OCB was stronger when team commitment was high. We provide several theoretical and practical implications. First, this study contributes to expanding the level of analysis regarding the relationship between work engagement and performance. Second, we identify OCB as a mediator on the relationship between work engagement and team performance. In conclusion, we present some limitations and future research directions. 직무열의는 조직 구성원이 직무를 수행하는 데 있어 높은 에너지와 자원을 이용하여 몰입하는 상태로, 업무와 관련된 역할을 위해 개인의 자원을 적극적으로 할당하고 지속적으로 사용하는 것을 의미한다. 최근 해외에서 직무열의는 개인수준 연구보다 확장된 집단수준의 직무열의의 연구들이 보고하고 있으나, 국내에서는 집단수준 직무열의를 다루는 연구가 거의 이루어지지 않고 있다. 이에 본 연구는 집단 수준의 직무열의와 팀 성과 간의 초점을 두고 집단수준 OCB의 매개효과와 팀 몰입의 조절효과를 규명하고자 하였다. 사회정보처리이론(Social information processing theory)과 감정전염(Emotional contagion) 이론에 기반 하여 집단 내부의 특정한 직무열의가 집단수준의 OCB를 수행하고 이것이 집단의 성과에 영향을 미칠 수 있다는 점을 규명하고자 하였다. 91개 공공기관의 팀장 및 조직원으로부터 자료를 수집 하여 분석한 결과 집단 수준의 직무열의가 집단수준 OCB에 정(+)의 영향을 미치고 이들의 관계를 팀 몰입이 조절하는 관계가 나타났다. 또한 집단수준의 직무열의가 높은 집단일수록 집단의 OCB가 증가하 고 이는 팀 성과에 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 매개효과를 확인하였다. 본 연구는 개인수준에서 다루어진 직무열의를 집단수준으로 확장하여 집단수준에서 조직원들이 공유된 직무열의를 가질 수 있다는 점을 규명하고, 직무열의와 집단 OCB 와 팀 몰입, 팀 성과간의 관계를 심도 있게 이해하는 데 기여하고 있다. 연구의 말미에서는 본 연구의 한계점과 향후 연구방향을 논의하였다.

벤처중소기업의 일과 생활의 균형이 기업성과에 미치는 영향: 제품혁신의 매개효과

배호영 한국벤처창업학회 2015 벤처창업연구 Vol.10 No.4

This research is to analyze the mediating effect of product innovation between work-life balance (work-family balance, work-leisure balance and work-development balance) and corporate performance in venture SMEs. We test four hypothesis. First, we test the hypothesis that work-life balance has a positive effect on product innovation. Second, we test the hypothesis that product innovation has a positive effect on corporate performance. Third, we test the hypothesis that work-life balance has a positive effect on corporate performance. Fourth, we test a positive mediating role of product innovation between work-life balance and corporate performance. For this research, we administered the questionnaire surveys, and got the 162 effective data of korean venture SMEs. We use CFA and SEM analysis of research model by AMOS 18.0. As a result, we can find the four meaningful results. First, work-life balance, especially only work-development balance, has a positive effect on product innovation. Second, product innovation has a positive effect on corporate performance. Third, the relationships between work-life balance (work-family balance, work-leisure balance and work-development balance) and corporate performance are no significant after the mediating variable (product innovation) is added. Fourth, product innovation has a positive mediating effect between work-life balance, especially only work-development balance, and corporate performance. Although this research has some limitations of generalization because of the limited size of samples, we has meaningful information related to the venture companies in the academic and business field. Additionally, the Multiple Indicator Multiple Cause(MIMIC) model is recommended in the future research. 본 연구는 벤처중소기업에 초점을 두고 일과 생활의 균형과 기업성과 간의 관계에서 제품혁신의 매개효과를 분석하는 실증 분석 연구이다. 이를 위해 일과 생활의 균형(일과 가정의 균형, 일과 여가의 균형, 일과 성장의 균형), 제품혁신, 기업성과에 대한 기존 선행연구를 포괄적으로 검토하여 연구모형을 구축한 뒤 각 변수들 간이 관계를 실증 분석하였다. 이를 위해 2015년 3월 1일부터 3월 31일까지 1개월간 영남지역(대구·경북지역 및 부산·경남지역) 벤처중소기업을 대상으로 설문지 500부를 배포 및 회수하여 162부의 유효 표본을 활용하여 구조방정식 분석을 통해 다음과 같은 결론을 도출하였다. 첫째, 일과 생활의 균형의 영역인 일과 가정의 균형, 일과 여가의 균형, 일과 성장의 균형 중 일과 성장의 균형만 제품혁신에 유의한 정(+)의 영향을 미쳤다. 이는 벤처중소기업의 경우 실질적으로 제품혁신에 도움이 되는 것은 근로자들의 자기계발이나 교육훈련임을 시사하며, 기업 차원에서 근로자들에게 교육훈련 프로그램 제공, 자기계발 시간 부여, 자기계발 경비 지원, 지식경영시스템 구축 등이 반드시 필요함을 제시한다. 둘째, 제품혁신은 기업성과에 유의한 정(+)의 영향을 미쳤다. 이는 벤처중소기업이 급변하는 경영환경에서 성장 또는 생존하기 위해서는 혁신이 필요함을 시사하며, 특히 벤처중소기업의 경우 제품혁신이 다른 혁신에 비해 매우 중요하므로 지속적인 제품혁신 노력이 요구된다. 셋째, 제품혁신이 매개된 상태에서 일과 생활의 균형의 영역인 일과 가정의 균형, 일과 여가의 균형, 일과 성장의 균형 모두 기업성과에 유의한 영향을 미치지 못했다. 넷째, 제품혁신은 일과 생활의 균형의 영역인 일과 가정의 균형, 일과 여가의 균형, 일과 성장의 균형 중 일과 성장의 균형과 기업성과 간의 관계만 긍정적(+)으로 매개했다. 이는 일과 성장의 균형이 제품혁신을 통해 기업성과로 이어지는 선순환 모델을 제시해 주며, 벤처중소기업의 근로자들이 업무 외 자기계발이나 교육훈련을 할 수 있는 시간과 비용을 지원받을 경우 제품혁신에 도움이 되며 이러한 제품혁신은 결국 기업성과로 이어질 수 있음을 시사한다. 결론적으로 본 연구는 벤처중소기업의 일과 성장의 균형에 대한 특별한 관리 필요성에 대한 학문적‧실무적 시사점을 제시해주고 있으며, 기업 차원에서 뿐만 아니라 정부 차원에서도 행·재정적 지원이 반드시 필요함을 알려주고 있다.

Probing the Relationship between Satisfaction with FLEXIBLE-WORK Arrangement and Performance: With a Focus on the Moderating Effect Organizational Commitment

Yongjin Sa J-INSTITUTE 2021 International Journal of Crisis & Safety Vol.6 No.3

Purpose: There are two primary purposes of this study. The first of which is to examine and validate the rela-tionship between the satisfaction with flexible work arrangement and(individual) performance in the public sector. The second of which is to quantitatively validate the moderating effect of organizational commitment on the rela-tionship between the satisfaction with flexible work arrangement and performance. Recognizing that studies in Korea on the flexible work arrangement, especially most of the quantitative studies have been focused on the studies to validate the effect of the flexible work arrangement, and given the inadequacy of the studies statistical-ly validating the relationship with the satisfaction with flexible work arrangement, the goal lies with contributing to the development of the flexible work arrangement related studies. Method: To validate the hypothesis of this study, the data of the 2020 Public Service Life Survey provided by the Korea Institute of Public Administration was utilized. The target of this study was civil servants serving at gen-eral(administrative/technical/managemental) duties affiliated with central administrative agencies and self gov-erning governments. Variables for this study include performance(dependent variable), satisfaction with flexible work arrangement(independent variable), organizational commitment(control variable), gender, age, marital status, educational background, and position(control variable), etc. To validate the hypothesis, a statistical analy-sis was performed to validate the moderating effect by using the regression analysis. Results: The key contents of the results of the statistical analysis of this study are as follows. First, the more the civil servant perceived greater satisfaction with the flexible work arrangement, the higher the individual s per-ceived performance level. Second, it was confirmed that the organizational commitment variable has had the ef-fect of partially adjusting the positive relationship between the satisfaction with flexible work arrangement and performance. In conclusion, both the first and second hypotheses used in this study were statistically verified. In connection with the control variables, the perceived(individual) performance of the older civil servant also turned out to be higher, and it was analyzed that the perceived performance of the unmarried civil servants was higher than that of the married. Furthermore, it turned out that there is a positive relationship of influence between the level of education and performance. Conclusion: This study, which presented a positive relationship of influence through the quantitative analysis between the satisfaction with flexible work arrangement and performance, is determined to be capable of making contribution to the development of domestic flexible work arrangement related studies to date. Furthermore, in order to further expand the positive relationship between the satisfaction with flexible work arrangement and performance, it was confirmed through the validation of the hypothesis of this study that the extent of organiza-tional commitment of the members is crucial.

공공기관의 고성과작업시스템이 직무성과에 미치는 영향 : 직무만족의 매개효과와 조직지원인식의 조절효과를 중심으로

성요한 ( Yo-han Seong ),조준 ( Jun Cho ),윤동열 ( Dong-yeol Yoon ) 한국생산성학회 2021 生産性論集 Vol.35 No.4

Looking at the recent research trends related to strategic human resource management, we can see that the interests of members on High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) have started to affect the performance variables. Several researchers have discussed the possibility that individual attitudes and behaviors can systematically change the relationship between High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) and performance, but the empirical studies involved is considered to be limited. Therefore, this study examined the effects of perceived High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) organization on the employee's job performance, and the mediating effect of job satisfaction and the moderating effect of Perceived Organizational Support(POS) in this relationship. In addition, the moderated mediating effects of the High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) considering the process and situation leading to job performance were verified. Through this process, the High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) was intended to verify the improvement of job performance through which route. The analysis results of 247 individual level data in public institutions showed that High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) had a positive relationship with job performance and job satisfaction, and job satisfaction positively mediated the relationship between High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) and job performance. In addition, Perceived Organizational Support(POS) moderate between employees' job satisfaction and job performance. In particular, both internal and external factors, which are subordinate to job satisfaction, were found to affect job performance regardless of the high and low group of Perceived Organizational Support(POS). As such, this study has theoretical implications in that it has empirically identified the medial effects of job satisfaction in High Performance Work Systems(HPWS) and job performance that have not been studied systematically in previous studies, and the moderating effects of Perceived Organizational Support(POS) in relation to job satisfaction and job performance. In addition, the practical implications aexist in that the design and introduction of a personnel system with clear objectives and high relevance to job have demonstrated the importance of successful implementation of a High Performance Work Systems(HPWS).

프랜차이즈 호텔의 LMX가 종업원의 직무스트레스, 직무역할성과, 그리고 충성도에 미치는 영향

김은정,차재원,강태원 한국프랜차이즈경영학회 2018 프랜차이즈경영연구 Vol.9 No.4

Purpose – In hotel industry, quality of leader-member exchange(LMX) relationship is very critical, because it impacts on the employee’s work attitude and behaviors. Thus, this research examines the effect of LMX on employee loyalty in the context of hotel business and identifies mediating roles of work stressors, work role performance in the relationship between LMX and employee loyalty. This research suggests the guidelines for how hotel leaders should manage their employees and build employee loyalty that improve management and business performance. Research design, data, and methodology - This study tests the structural relationship between LMX, work stressors, work role performance, and employee loyalty. Work role performance divide into three sub-dimensions such as individual task proficiency, individual task adaptivity, and individual task proactivity. In order to examine the purposes of this research, research model and hypotheses were developed. All constructs were measured with multiple items developed and tested in the previous studies. The data were collected from 113 franchise hotel employees and were analyzed using SPSS 22.0 and SmartPLS 3 program. Result – The findings of this research are as follows. First, leader-member exchange(LMX) have significant positive impacts on work stressors, work role performance, and employee loyalty. Second, work stressors have significant negative impacts on work role performance and employee loyalty. Third, work role performance has significant positive impact on employee loyalty. Conclusions – The outcomes of this research indicate that hotel leaders should focus on the dyadic relationship with their employees how to improve employee productivity through LMX relationship. In turn, the quality of this relationship influences employees’s work attitudes and behaviors. As a result of increasing job demands in hotel business which relies heavily on human resources, the hotel leader must find ways to prevent or reduce stressors and associated strains. If hotel employees perceive the high quality of LMX relationship, they improve their work role performance which influences loyalty. Therefore, the hotel leaders should develop monetary or non-monetary reward system for the employees and, make an efforts to have unique social exchange relationships with employees.