“응답하라” 휘트먼 -조락(凋落)한『풀잎』의 잎사귀를 다시 읽는 일

정은귀 ( Eun Gwi Chung ) 영미문학연구회 2013 안과 밖 Vol.0 No.34

Throughout his life, Walt Whitman tried to make one perfect volume of Leaves of Grass, which explains his lifelong efforts for its revision. With the endless revision process, he carefully saw to the crcation of the author and public, historical figure called “Walt Whitman,” the origin of modern poetry, While the long history of Whitman criticism has been busy accommodating Leaves of Grass, the 1881 author edition, for every new-born theory, the revision process of Leaves of Grass and its effects have not garnered significant attention of equal measure to that of literary theories, This essay, as a way of re-positioning Whitiman in his own era, politics, and culture, goes back to the process of revision and re-reads “Respondez!,” one of the greatest poems of Whitman, which became a fallen leaf. Firstly appearing in the 11856 edition of Leaves of Grass, finally disappearing in the 1881 author-edition as it was divided into two short poems “Reversals” and “Transpositions,” “Respondez!” needs to be reevaluated as one of the most significant achievements in Whitman``s poetry. In “Respondez! (The Poem of the Propositions of Nakedness)” Whitman``s poetry. In “Respondez! (The Poem of the Propositions of Nakedness)” Whitman attempts to resolve the political and cultural crisis of visionary democracy. Linking the political failure of America with the collapse of a rational order, the poet relocates the individuals and the nation in a transposed imaginative frame. In the form of endless repetitive enumeration and cataloging where the vibrant power of negativity governs the whole lines, the throes of democracy that appeared to have lost its direction at that time are vividly dramatized. In “Reversals” and “Transpositions,” the revised versions of “Respondez!” however, the vibrant power of the long original poem loses its force in a shortened form. While the original poem addresses directly the political, cultural landscape of his time and tears away the veils of the present crisi exposing the naked truth of American democracy, the two poems suppress the blistering and sarcastic honesty. Evaluating the three poems, this paper cautiously concludes the revision process of “Respondez!” proves that Whitman succumbed to the expectations of readers. Highlighting the artistic achievement and importance of the fallen leaves in Leaves of Grass, this paper invites readers to rethink how a poet is born in and out of his time and his text.

Effect of Partial Replacement of Concentrates with Barhar (Artocarpus lakocha) Leaves on Growth Performance of Kids Fed a Mixed Jungle Grass-based Diet

Das, A.,De, D.,Katole, S. Asian Australasian Association of Animal Productio 2011 Animal Bioscience Vol.24 No.1

A feeding trial was conducted to study the replacement value of concentrates with Barhar (Artocarpus lakocha) leaves on growth performance of kids fed a mixed jungle grass-based diet. Fifteen Sikkim local kids, about 4 months of age and body weight ranging from 5.8 to 9.2 kg, were randomly distributed into three groups of five. Kids were stall fed ad lib with mixed jungle grass collected from the nearby forest and native scrubland. The kids in group I received supplementary concentrate (Maize 35%, mustard cake 32%, rice bran 30%, mineral mixture 2% and common salt 1%) at approximately 2% of BW. For groups II and III, 25 and 50% of the concentrate was replaced with Barhar (Artocarpus lakocha) leaves, respectively. Total dry matter intake (DMI) was not significantly different among groups. Digestibility of CP decreased (p<0.05) and that of NDF increased (p<0.01) with increasing level of Barhar leaves in the diet. Digestibility of ADF (p<0.01), hemi cellulose (p<0.05) and cellulose (p<0.01) was higher in groups II and III than in group I. Ruminal pH and TVFA concentration were not significantly different among groups. Rumen ammonia-N concentration decreased (p<0.01) with increased level of Barhar leaves in the diet. Similarly, plasma urea nitrogen and blood glucose levels were reduced (p<0.05) with increasing level of Barhar leaves in the diet. Replacement of concentrate with Barhar resulted in reduced Hb and lower serum iron concentration. Levels of other serum metabolites including minerals were not altered by the replacement. Average daily gain (ADG) was 53.3, 54.4 and 41.8 g/d in groups I, II and III, respectively. ADG was not adversely affected when the level of replacement was restricted to 25%. However, at 50% of replacement ADG was significantly lower than the control (p<0.05). Thus, it was concluded that Barhar leaves might replace 25% of the supplemental concentrate for growing Sikkim local kids fed on a mixed jungle grass-based diet.

『풀잎』의 소리에 관한 종교적 고찰

김영희 ( Young Hee Kim ) 한국문학과종교학회 2013 문학과종교 Vol.18 No.3

이 글은『풀잎』에 나타난 소리의 종교적 특징을 고찰하는데 의의를 두고 있다. 휫먼은 자신의 목소리뿐만 아니라 만물과 모든 인간의 소리를『풀잎』에 담아 썼다. 그리고 세상의 소리를 경청하고 분석하여 시를 쓰는 자신만의 방식을 보인다. 그는 시인을 자연과 우주의 모든 소리를 번역하는 소리의 번역가로 소개한다. 그는 소리들을 통하여 세상 속에 존재하는 선악의 모든 면들을 차별없이 수용하고, 흡수하고, 그것을 새로운 의미로 조명하였다. 그의『풀잎』에 나타난 다양한 소리들은 자연과 인간의 아름다운 소리의 요소와 근원들을 제시하기도하지만, 절망과 고통 속에 신음하는 형제의 소리, 휫먼의 영혼이 외치는 야성의 소리, 그리고 만물을 사랑하는 신의 목소리를 상징하기도 한다. 따라서 『풀잎』은 휫먼의 신의 무한한 사랑 속에 있는 모든 만인과 존재들을 축복하는 노래이고 찬미시집인 것이다. The purpose of this study is to investigate the religious qualities of voices in Leaves of Grass. Walt Whitman included not only the poet`s voice but also the voices of man and the universe in Leaves of Grass. He listened to and analyzed at all the sounds of the world. He suggested the ways in which sounds have affected his poems. He introduced himself as a translator of the voices of nature and the sound of the universe. Whitman captured his spirituality and imagination in Leaves of Grass. Whitman portrayed good and bad aspects of reality in a world with all voices. He illuminated them with new meaning. The sounds in the work symbolize the voices of the brothers` despair, pain in the darkness, the cries of Whitman`s soul, and the voice of God who loves all things. Leaves of Grass is voices, songs, marches, and chants which bless all men and all things in God`s love.

에드워드 웨스턴의 『풀잎』 사진에 나타난 상호매체성

심진호 사단법인 인문사회과학기술융합학회 2019 예술인문사회융합멀티미디어논문지 Vol.9 No.12

월트 휘트먼(Walt Whitman)은 그의 대표시집 『풀잎』(Leaves of Grass)을 통해 “리얼리티와 과학”의 이미지를 강조했다. “ 풀잎 에서 모든 것이 문자 그대로 사진 찍혀진다”라는 시인의 언급에서 단적으로 입증되듯 『풀잎』에 충만해있는 “리얼리티와 과학”의 이미지는 시인을 매료시킨 사진과 불가분적 상관성을 지니고 있다. ‘사진술의 피카소’로 불리는 에드워드 웨스턴(Edward Weston)은 1941년 리미티드 에디션 클럽의 의뢰를 받고 『풀잎』의 시각적 이미지에 부합되는 사진을 찍게 된다. 웨스턴은 단순히 삽화로서의 사진 이미지에 그치지 않고 자신의 “미국적 비전을 구성하는 근원적인 주제와 객관적 리얼리티를 시각화”하려했다. 『풀잎』의 사진들은 엄격히 통제되고 클로즈업과 배타적 형식주의의 스타일을 특징으로 하는 그의 초기 사진과 구별되는 웨스턴의 더욱 성숙하고 포괄적인 비전, 즉 “나의 미국”을 암시한다. 시대와 매체의 차이를 가로질러 『풀잎』에 있는 웨스턴의 사진과 휘트먼의 시 사이의 상호매체성은 새로운 미학적 가능성을 확장시키고 있다. Walt Whitman emphasizes images of “realities and science” throughout his representative poetry collection Leaves of Grass. As his statement that “In these Leaves, everything is literally photographed” manifests, Whitman’s fascination with images of “realities and science” is indivisibly interrelated with photography. Edward Weston, considered Picasso of photography, seizes an opportunity to take pictures which resonate with Whitman’s poems commissioned by the Limited Editions Club of 1941. Weston longs to visualize “the underlying themes, the objective realities, that make up Whitman's vision of America” rather than literally illustrate Leaves of Grass. These photographs suggest Weston's more mature and inclusive vision of “my America” distinguished from his earlier works featuring the style of strictly organized, close-up and exclusionary formalism. Intermediality between Weston’s photography and Whitman’s poetry in Leaves of Grass extends the new aesthetic possibility, transcending boundaries of ages and media.

Evoking National Unity: Suffering, Sympathy, and Patriotic Wars in Leaves of Grass

장정우 한국현대영미시학회 2017 현대영미시연구 Vol.23 No.1

The first edition of Leaves of Grass in 1855 is impressively filled with bloody scenes such as a suicidal scene, a suffering slave, a mashed fireman, and martyrs of war. The sensational scenes not only attract people’s attention but also establish common ground upon which people are linked together. The blood imagery begins on the personal level, but it is developed to the public level. To evoke national unity, Whitman employs effective devices such as sympathy with victims, empathy with sufferers, and sensationalism. On the other hand, Whitman’s persona appears as a sympathetic figure in Leaves of Grass. The sympathetic yet omniscient persona identifies himself with many suffering characters in a series of vignettes. Whitman mentions destructive and sensational moments in his poems to bring up a moment of patriotic togetherness. Paradoxical as it seems to be, national union comes from a moment of disaster. In other words, the source of national unity ironically comes from the destructive scenes such as the shipwreck, the hounded slave, and the mashed fireman. Whitman interweaves suffering, sympathy, and martyrdom into national unity in Leaves of Grass.

이효석의 「풀잎」에 나타난 월트 휘트먼의 사상

양균원(Kyoonwon Yang),방민호(토론자) 한국현대문학회 2007 한국현대문학회 학술발표회자료집 Vol.- No.-

이효석의 단편 「풀잎」은 월트 휘트먼의 시집 『풀잎』과 제목이 같다. 또한 이 작품은 부제에서 휘트먼의 존재가 “인류의 행복”이라고 밝히고 있고 본문에서 그의 시 세 구절을 낭독하고 있기도 하다. 이 글은 휘트먼이 이효석에게 끼친 영향의 양상을 규명하기 위해 첫째, 이효석 단편의 두 주인공인 준보와 옥실의 사랑의 방식을 살피고 둘째, 준보가 낭독한 휘트먼의 시 세 구절을 보다 넓은 원문의 맥락에서 그 본의를 들춰 비교한 후 셋째, 새 사랑의 방식의 관점에서 「풀잎」과 『풀잎』의 차이를 따져본다. 이효석의 「풀잎」은 휘트먼의 『풀잎』에 고무되어 새 사랑의 방식을 보여주고 있지만 그 주인공들이 휘트먼의 사랑에서처럼 자연의 강건함과 자유로움을 누리고 있지는 않다. 이러한 부분적 실패는 이효석이, 일제 강점기의 억압적 분위기에서, 사랑 외의 것들로서 삶에 필수적인 것들, 예컨대 자유와 평등의 가치 등에 대해 충분한 관심을 기울이지 못한 데서 비롯된 것으로 보인다. 휘트먼의 사랑이 우주 만물들 간의 강하고 평등한 연대를 확인해주는 동안에 이효석의 사랑은 혼전 성관계와 여성에 대해 주어져온 관습적 편견을 극복하는 데 온 힘을 소진하고 있다. "Leaves of Grass," a short story of Hyosuk Lee's, with the same title as that of Walt Whitman's collection of poetry, is subtitled "Mankind has the happiness to have Walt Whitman." and contains three citations from Whitman. This article aims to reveal the way Whitman has influence upon Lee by examining 1) the characteristics of love affairs of Joonbo and Shil, two protagonists of Lee's story. 2) three translated citations from Whitman from a wider original context, 3) "The Song of Myself" by Whitman, and 4) the differences, which Whitman's and Lee's protagonists reveal in their pursuit of love. Lee's "Leaves of Grass" embodies a new way of loving as encouraged by Whitman, but does not appear to achieve the enjoyment of Whitman's love as free and strong as nature. This partial failure seems to result from the circumstances under which Lee could not exert his full strength to consider other necessities than love, such as people's freedom and equality, in the milieu of the oppressive censorship during the Japan's occupation. While Whitman's love affirms the strong connection among all the elements of the universe, giving the ordinary the strength to become a democratic member of society. Lee's confines its momentum to the overcoming of the traditional prejudice against women and premarital sex relations.

『나 자신의 노래』 에 나타난 삶과 죽음에 대한 견해

최희섭(Choi, Hie Sup) 한국동서비교문학학회 2008 동서 비교문학저널 Vol.0 No.18

Walt Whitman’s intention, as he said in the preface of Leaves of Grass and Two Rivulets, was to chant the songs of the body and existence in Leaves of Grass and then to compose another volume on the soul. But he didn"t write another volume but rewrote and enlarged Leaves of Grass. Thus, Leaves of Grass became songs of body and soul. Whitman even asserts that he is the poet of the Body and of the Soul. In Song of Myself, he expresses his various thoughts on the body, nature, democracy, and the soul, etc. When he thinks of the body and the soul, he cannot help thinking of death. His thought on death and afterlife is based on the metempsychosis. Death is thought to be not a termination of existence or an entrance to heaven but a stage to go through to be born again. Though all the living existences experience many deaths and many births, their deaths and births are not a separate happening but a phase of a continuous life which appears in different forms and different bodies. The poet himself doesn’t know even the name of the existence in his self which doesn’t die and live everlastingly. But he firmly believes that something that makes metempsychosis possible exists in his self.

생태적 사유를 통한 월트 휘트먼의 신인류개념과 단군신화의 홍익인간에 관한 고찰

김영희(Younghee Kim) 한국동서비교문학학회 2015 동서 비교문학저널 Vol.0 No.33

The purpose of this study is to connect the Walt Whitman’s ecological thought with the idea of the Hongik-Inkan in Tangun myth through ecological thinking. This American transcendentalist poet embodies love, freedom, equality, eternal life and joy in Leaves of Grass. It is not old ideas in old literary forms but new ideas in new forms which he sought in the Leaves of Grass. His poem raises readers’ awareness of the environmental conservation. His thought is similar to Korean founding spirit, Hongik-Inkan. In “Song of the Redwood Tree,” Whitman sings the destruction of ancient forests, which this study argues is foretelling the destruction of tropical forests in our time. Whitman often uses musical structures in the “Song of the Redwood Tree,” presenting it as a grand operatic aria with passages of recitative in which the poet repeats and expands upon the message that the great tree imparts. The redwood tree can be compared with Big Tree of M. Eliade and Sindansu in Legend of Tangun. Whitman’s another ecological poem is “Our Old Feuillage” that describes the ecological niche, a term with a variety of meanings. The ecological niche relates to the behavior of a species living under environmental conditions. Whitman doesn’t think that nature is a silent being. As he recognizes in Leaves of Grass, nature lives immortally in earth and grass, speaking its voices and showing the ecological web. His ecological thought was derived from his ecological democracy that is not only one of his goals in his writings but also one of key ideas in Tangun legend.

월트 휘트먼의 작품에 나타난 해양 풍경

심진호(Shim, Jin-Ho),이병철(Lee, Byung-Chul) 한국해양대학교 국제해양문제연구소 2016 해항도시문화교섭학 Vol.0 No.15

고향 롱 아일랜드(Long Island)의 풍요로운 해양 환경 속에서 성장했기에 월트 휘트먼(Walt Whitman)은 바다와 섬으로부터 영감을 받은 많은 시를 창출해낼 수 있었다. 1855년에 출간된 첫 시집 『풀잎』(Leaves of Grass)에서부터 바다는 휘트먼의 중심 주제로 두드러지게 사용되었다. 더욱이 풍성한 해양 풍경을 보여주는 『풀잎』의 많은 시들은 미국 원주민들이 사용했던 롱 아일랜드의 원래 이름이자 동시에 일평생 휘트먼을 변함없이 매료시킨 ‘포마녹’(Paumanok)과 불가분적으로 연계되어 있다. 휘트먼은 시와 산문을 통해 포마녹의 지리적 범위를 그가 가장 오랜 기간 거주했던 브루클린까지 아우르고 있다는 점은 중요하다. “나는 때때로 나 자신이 롱 아일랜드의 일부처럼 느껴질 때가 있다. 나는 소년과 성인으로서 브루클린과 몬턱 포인트에 이르는 거의 모든 지역에서 살아오고 있다”는 그의 말은 이런 사실을 단적으로 입증해준다. 자신을 포마녹과 동일시하면서 휘트먼은 그 섬에서 어린 시절 그가 했던 일들이 처음부터 끝까지 『풀잎』의 영감의 원천이 되었다는 사실을 드러낸다. 『풀잎』을 통해 「포마녹에서 출발하여」(“Starting from Paumanok”), 「새처럼 날아 포마녹에서 출발하여」(“From Paumanok Starting I Fly Like a Bird”), 「포마녹」(“Paumanok”) 등 포마녹을 시적 제재로 다룬 시를 찾기는 어렵지 않다. 더욱이 「바다의 표류」(“Sea-Drift”)라는 타이틀에 수록된 대부분의 시는 포마녹과 긴밀한 연관성을 보여준다. 요컨대, 휘트먼은 바다라는 “유동적이고 신비한 주제”와 포마녹의 고유한 장소성을 결합시킴으로써 그의 상상력을 더욱 확장할 수 있었다. 「바다의 표류」의 시들은 이제 막 여정에 오른 미숙한 시인이 더욱 성숙한 시인으로 변모하는 성장 과정을 명백히 보여주고 있다. 시인이 얻게 된 모든 것을 연결 짓는 “광대한 유사성”이라는 새로운 비전은 인간과 자연 사이의 진정한 상호 관계를 토대로 하고 있기에 생태학적 사유와 상통한다. “광대한 유사성”을 발현시킴으로써 휘트먼은 포마녹이라는 지리적 경계를 초월하여 자신이 살고 있는 도시를 지속가능한 장소로 변형하길 염원했다. 이런 맥락에서 휘트먼이 무분별한 개발로 인해 질병, 생태계 파괴, 범죄 등 환경오염과 사회문제가 만연해 있는 뉴욕을 디스토피아적 공간을 상기시키는 “고모라”로 간주한 것은 그의 도시생태학적 상상력의 전형이라 할 수 있다. 『풀잎』을 통해 휘트먼이 뉴욕이라는 단어를 지양하고 포마녹에서 연유한 “토착적인” 어떤 것을 담아내고 있다고 끊임없이 역설한 “나의 도시 매나하타”(Mannahatta my city)는 다름 아닌 탈경계적이고 생태학적 사유를 포괄하는 그의 “광대한 유사성”의 요체인 것이다. 이렇듯 해양 풍경과 불가분적 연관성을 지니며 시인에게 “광대한 유사성”이라는 새로운 비전을 촉발시키는 포마녹은 휘트먼의 상상력의 정수가 되고 있다. Since he grew up in the marine environment of his hometown Long Island, Walt Whitman could write many poems inspired by the sea and the island. From his first collection of poems Leaves of Grass published in 1855, the sea is remarkably used as Whitman"s primary subject matter. His numerous poems on maritime landscapes are inevitably related to the setting of Paumanok, the aboriginal name of Long Island, with which Whitman is invariably fascinated throughout his entire life. It is important that the poet in his works includes the geographical range of Paumanok up to Brooklyn in which he lived for the longest period by stating “I have lived in nearly all parts, from Brooklyn to Montauk Point.” Identifying himself with Paumanok, Whitman reveals that his doings in the island are woven all through Leaves of Grass. Consequently, it is not surprising to find the poems on Paumanok such as “Starting from Paumanok,” “From Paumanok Starting I Fly Like a Bird, “Paumanok,” etc. Furthermore, most of his poems which the poet published under the name of “Sea-Drift” have an intimate relationship with Paumanok. Whitman was able to expand his vision by incorporating the “fluid and mystic theme” of the sea with the indigenous placeness of Paumanok. The poems in “Sea-Drift” cluster explicitly show the poet"s growth process from an outsetting bard to a mature poet. His accomplished vision of “vast similitude” which interlocks all is parallel to the ecological thought as it is based on a true interrelationship between human beings and nature. Whitman with a new vision of “vast similitude” desires to transform New York where he lives for a long period of time into a sustainable city, transcending the geographical limit of Paumanok. In Leaves of Grass, his invariable preference for calling “Mannahatta my city” over “Gomorrah” New York, which signifies a dystopian place, is believed to be the fruit of Whitman"s new vision. Indivisibly related to the maritime landscapes, Paumanok, which inspires Whitman to have the “vast similitude,” acts as the essence of the poet"s imagination.

월트 휘트먼의 추의 미학: 아방가르드 미술과의 연관성을 중심으로

심진호 새한영어영문학회 2018 새한영어영문학 Vol.60 No.1

Throughout Leaves of Grass, Walt Whitman frankly reveals his infinite preferences for ugliness as the anti-aesthetic expressions which subsume vulgarity, indecency, disgust, obsceneness, grotesqueness, etc. He speaks for the outcasts of society such as prisoners, prostitutes, thieves and dwarfs, and asserts that “ugly words” among them are “powerful words.” He unhesitatingly uses the abject of his bodily fluid as the central themes of his poetry. Whitman’s writings using the abject like blood and semen as well as preferences for ugly words cannot be easily found in the works of his contemporary writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. As he maintains “Voices indecent by me clarified and transfigur’d,” Whitman believes that the ugly words he uses can be sublimated into aesthetics. Due to his insightful vision far ahead of his time, Whitman has been regarded as the founding father of the avant-garde art by lots of modern artists. It is not difficult to find his avant-garde style going beyond sheer realism in Leaves of Grass. Lots of his poems correspond to the images of the Expressionists and Futurists with the distinctive style of ugliness. That is why the European avant-garde artists Ernst Kirchner and Filippo Marinetti consider Whitman as their mentor. Ultimately, Whitman’s desire to stain every poem with his blood and semen has a strong correlation with that of Abject artists as they both try to sublimate the abject into an art.