미국에서의 의료용 마리화나 합법화의 시사점

허순철 ( Soon Chul Huh ) 한양대학교 법학연구소 2016 법학논총 Vol.33 No.4

1996년 미국 캘리포니아주를 시작으로 현재까지 미국 내 28개 주와 워싱턴 D.C.가 의료용 마리화나를 합법화 하였다. 이처럼 마리화나에 대한 법적 규제가 급격한 변화를 보이는 것은 마리화나가 가지는 의학적 효용에 기인한다. 마리화나는 특히 신경장애나 손상으로 인한 통증, 예컨대 메스꺼움, 발작, 녹내장, 활동장애 등의 치료에 효과가 있을 뿐만 아니라 파킨슨 병으로 인한 떨림을 완화시키고 다발성 경화증과 만성 염증성 질환인 크론병으로 인한 고통을 경감시켜주는 것으로 알려져 있다. 반면에 마리화나는 코카인이나 필로폰과 같은 위험한 마약에 빠지는 통로로서 역할을 할 수 있으며, 환각이나 쾌감 등을 주기 때문에 남용될 개연성으로 인해 연방법인 「규제약물법」 상 1급 마약으로 분류되어 있다. 2005년 미국연방대법원은 Gonzales v. Raich 사건에서 캘리포니아 주법인 「의료용 마리화나법」에 따라 의료용 마리화나를 적법하게 재배하더라도 마리화나 가격과 시장 조건에 영향을 미치게 되므로 「규제약물법」이 이들의 행위를 규제하는 것은 연방헌법상 주간통상조항에 위반되지 않는다고 하였다. 한편 미국 내 28개주와 워싱턴 D.C.는 의료용 마리화나를 합법화한 반면에 연방법인 「규제약물법」은 마리화나의 사용 등을 범죄로 규정하여 처벌하고 있기 때문에 여러 가지 법적인 문제들이 발행한다. 먼저 의료용 마리화나가 합법화된 주에 사는 주민이라도 연방법의 적용을 받는 시설, 예컨대 사회보장국 건물 등에서 마리화나를 소지하다가 적발되면 주법에 의해서 적법한 것이라도 연방법을 위반한 것으로서 형사처벌을 받게 된다. 둘째, 의료용 마리화나를 적법하게 이용하는 경우라도 자녀의 복리에 위해가 되는 경우에는 부모의 양육권을 제한당할 수 있다. 셋째, 공립학교에 다니는 학생의 경우 학교당국이 연방법에 위반된다는 이유로 의료용 마리화나의 사용에 협조하지 않아 학생의 학습권에 제약이 발생하기도 한다. 넷째, 근로자가 작업시간외에 의료용으로 마리화나를 사용했음에도 불구하고 직장에서 실시하는 소변검사에서 양성반응을 보여서 해고되는 사례가 발생하고 있다. 이러한 법적인 문제들은 미국이 연방국가로서 이중적인 법체계를 가지고 있다는 데에서 기인하는 것이지만, 우리는 마리화나의 의학적 효용과 가치에 주목해야 할 것이다. 특히 마리화나는 종류가 매우 많고, 이를 투여 내지 이용하는 방법도 다양하므로 기존의 약물로는 치료가 어려운 각종 질병에 대한 의학적인 효용에 관한 장기간의 연구와 실험이 필요하다. Until now 28 States and Washington D.C. has legalized medical marijuana since California legalized it for the first time as of 1996 in the United States. This radical change toward the legal regulation of marijuana results from the medical benefits from using it. It is said that marijuana can play a critical role in controlling neuropathic pain including nausea, spasticity, glaucoma and movement disorder, and can relieve the tremor of the Parkinson`s disease and the pain of the Crohn`s disease. In contrast, marijuana has been classified as a Schedule 1 Controlled Substance under the Controlled Substance Act (CSA) not only because it can be a gateway to the hard narcotics such as cocaine and methamphetamine, but also because it has abuse potential due to its hallucination or pleasant feeling. In 2005, the Supreme Court of the U.S. decided that “application of CSA provisions criminalizing manufacture, distribution, or possession of marijuana to intra-state growers and users of marijuana for medical purposes did not violate Commerce Clause” under the U.S. Constitution since their private growth of marijuana affected price and trade conditions in the marijuana market even though they grew it legally under the California statute. There are some legal problems caused by the fact that 28 States and Washington D.C. has legalized medical marijuana but the federal law, CSA, still punishes its use and possession as a crime. First, citizens who live in a State where medical marijuana is legal can be offenders when they are searched and found to be in possession of marijuana in a federal building such as the Social Security Administration office even though medical marijuana is legal under the State statute. Second, parents may lose custody of their child if the child was harmed by the use of marijuana by them even though they legally used it under the State statutes. Third, public school students may have some disadvantages regarding their right to study because public schools are not cooperative with the students who are prescribed medical marijuana, which is still illegal under CSA. Fourth, disabled employees who used medical marijuana are being fired for using it outside the workplace due to the positive urine drug tests. In sum, these legal problems may caused by the fact that America has the dual legal systems, the federal and the state legal systems, but we should pay attention to the medical benefits and values of marijuana. In particular, long-term study and tests are necessary with regard to the medical utility for the disease which is not easy to treat with the existing medicine because there are many different kinds of marijuana and the methods of its administration and use vary.

Dazed Smokers, Confused Employment: Why State Employment Laws for Legal Marijuana Users Fail to Protect Employees

Jolene Sproviero 이화여자대학교 생명의료법연구소 2018 Asia Pacific Journal of Health Law & Ethics Vol.11 No.3

The fight to legalize marijuana in the United States seemed to finally be a success after more than half of the states legalized marijuana for medicinal purposes or for both medicinal and recreational uses. Although marijuana is legal in many states, employees who legally use marijuana off the job and are not high during work hours can still be denied employment or terminated. These employees range from the casual marijuana user to the employee with disabilities who medically relies on marijuana. One problem with states’ legalization laws is that they are silent on the effect of legalization in the employment sector. Another problem is that the laws explicitly exclude employment and thus allow employers to decide whether to take adverse action against employees who legally use marijuana. Three employment-based arguments have challenged employers’ adverse actions, but all have failed in both state and federal court. This article will explore these three employment-based challenges and explain why they were not successful. This article will also address the laws of ten states that do explicitly provide some employment protection and explain the four problems as to why these state laws are insufficient protection for legal marijuana users.

대마초사건, 그 1975년의 의미

이영미(Lee, Young-mee) 역사비평사 2015 역사비평 Vol.- No.112

This paper examines the “1975 marijuana incident”, the resulting comprehensive ban on Korean pop songs, and implementation of Emergency Measure No. 9. Under a dictatorship, it seems to be normal for such restrictions to be imposed in the name of public peace and order which is likely to end up as a strict control on social customs. But in this case, the 1975 restrictions were much more aggressive than before. In December 1975, the government announced that they arrested some pop singers suspected of smoking illegal marijuana and imposed strict control over the use of marijuana. The strong warning from the president and the government against marijuana smoking and the immediate detention of the suspected pop singers created the idea that popular culture was a breeding ground of decadence contaminated with drugs. However, despite such a dire accusation, the singers were only sentenced with prohibition and a fine. Interestingly, before the scandal, some modern folk and rock songs had been banned and the most of their singers accused of smoking marijuana. It seems that the two seemingly separate incidents were targeted in order to control popular, youth culture in the early 1970s. Meanwhile, 1975 was the time of extreme coercive politics under the Yushin Regime. Park Jeonghui’s Yushin government which had succeeded in claiming permanent office enforced Emergency Measure No. 9, banning any form of criticism of the government. The government also disbanded student bodies at universities and prevented any anti-Yushin demonstrations which at that time were only possible on university campuses. The motto of the Yushin constitution was “Korean-style democracy” and were dismissive of the youth as those who blindly followed the West. The marijuana incident and youth culture were labelled as decadent culture modeled after Western pop culture. The anti-Yushin student movement which had nothing to do with this were criticized as blindly following of Western democracy. Moreover, the old generation who had grown up during the period of Japanese occupation disapproved of and despised those who were born after the Korean War because of their Americanized culture and way of thinking. With the marijuana incident, the Park Jung-hee government influenced public opinion through the media that the illegal use of marijuana and adherence of their youth to Western culture could no longer be ignored. The government appeared to succeed in getting public approval for their repressive measures to control youth culture and their crackdown on the anti-Yushin student movement. In this regard, the marijuana incident contributed to harmonizing the problem of democracy with that of social custom.

의료용 대마 합법화와 불법 약물 사용자 증가의 상관관계 분석

김국진 ( Gookjin Kim ) 사단법인 아시아문화학술원 2021 인문사회 21 Vol.12 No.6

미국에서는 최근까지 워싱턴 DC를 포함하여 31개의 주도 의료용 대마초 사용을 합법화하였고 그 외 다른 주들도 합법화 여부를 고려 중이다. 하지만 연방정부는 대마초의 사용에 대한 여러 우려 사항 때문에 주(州)들의 의료용 대마초 합법화를 인정하지 않고 여전히 연방법을 근거로 의료용 대마초 사용자들과 제공자들을 조사하고 체포하고 있다. 연방정부가 우려하고 있는 사항 중 하나는 의료용 대마초 합법화가 다른 불법 약물 사용자 수의 증가를 불러일으킬 수 있다는 것이다. 본 연구는 의료용 대마초 사용의 합법화 여부가 불법 약물 사용자 수 증감에 미치는 영향을 다중회기분석을 통해 분석하였다. 그 결과 의료용 대마초의 합법화와 불법 약물 사용자 수의 증가와 상관관계가 있음을 발견하였다. 본 연구는 최근 한국 정부의 의료용 대마초의 접근성 확장 논의에 중요한 근거자료가 될 것이다. 31 states and the District of Columbia have legalized medical marijuana, and other states are considering the legalization in the United States. On the other hand, the federal government refuses to recognize state laws legalizing medical marijuana and continues to investigate and arrest medical marijuana providers and users under federal statute because the federal government raised some concerns about medical marijuana law. One of the concerns is that medical marijuana law increases illicit drug use. This article analyzes the effect of legalizing medical marijuana on the increase of illegal drug users by multiple regression. Findings indicate that there is significant association between the rates of overall illicit drug users and medical marijuana law. This study has a contribution giving an evidence for the Korean government’s discussion about expanding the accessibility of medical marijuana.

안정동위원소 비율 및 테트라하이드로칸나비놀 함량 분석을 통한 한국산 대마의 재배 환경 추론

이재신,박용훈,이종숙,정진일,임미애,정희선,Lee, Jae-Sin,Park, Yong-Hoon,Rhee, Jong-Sook,Jeong, Jin-Il,Lim, Mi-Ae,Chung, Hee-Sun 대한약학회 2008 약학회지 Vol.52 No.3

Stable isotope ratio of carbon and nitrogen ($\delta^{13}C$ & $\delta^{15}N$), and $\Delta^{9}$-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) contents were measured on 37 Korean cannabis and 10 commercial grade marijuana seized in Korea. Factors influencing on the measured values and their variations were investigated. $\delta^{13}C$ value of cannabis is specified mainly by water availability. Korean cannabis showed relatively low $\delta^{13}C$ values ranging -33.29$\sim$-27.01% (mean=-31.01%), which reflect geographic conditions of Korea where is rainy, especially during summer. $\delta^{15}N$ values, which reflect individual planting conditions, were relatively high up to -0.5$\sim$18.0% (mean=6.44%). It reflects characteristics of Korean cannabis growing wild in forest or cultivated in fertile soil. Tetrahydrocannabinol is the major hallucinogenic compound of cannabis. Ethanol extracts of cannabis leaves were derivatized by N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA), and the derivatives were analyzed by GC-MS in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. THC contents of Korean cannabis ranged 0.11$\sim$4.34% (mean=1.47%), which were relatively low compared with commercial grade marijuana.

Effect of marijuana legalization policies on youth marijuana use: A logistic model comparison analysis of demographic characteristics

Joshua Park,Ji-won Yoo,Sinyong Choi 한국형사법무정책연구원 2023 International Journal of Criminal Justice Vol.5 No.2

During the last two decades, many U.S. states have legalized marijuana use, and the effect of this policy on youth marijuana use has emerged as a critical concern for policymakers and academic studies. However, the empirical findings from previous studies are not consistent and even conflict with each other. This study hypothesizes that these discrepancies should be caused by demographic differences in youth marijuana use. For the data analysis, we employed nationally representative survey data, “Continuing Study of American Youth - 12th-Grade Survey,” from 2012 to 2020 and examined the temporal changes in youth marijuana use by gender and race groups. We also introduced logistic regressions to clarify the effect of legalization after controlling for personal and contextual characteristics. The results show that as more states have legalized recreational marijuana, marijuana use among female youths has increased significantly, while that of males has not changed. Recreational marijuana use also positively influences white and black youths; however, its impact on Hispanic youths is negative. With these findings, we conclude that different attitudes, perceptions, and circumstances should cause distinctive effects of marijuana legalization across gender and race groups. Future studies should consider these demographic differences in youth marijuana use for more effective intervention efforts.

대마초 합법화의 세계적 추세에 따른 형법상 실효성 방안

전보경 가천대학교 법학연구소 2014 가천법학 Vol.7 No.2

미국 내에서 기분전환용 대마초가 합법화되었다. 개인이 기분전환용으로 대마초를 흡연하거나 이를 위해 소지하는 경우뿐만 아니라 이를 판매하는 행위도 합법적으로 인정했다. 세계적으로 대마초, 마약, 향정신성의 약품을 엄격하게 금지하던 추세에서 개인이 사용하기 위한 경우에는 허용하는 방향으로 세계적인 추세가 바뀌고 있다. 우리나라에서도 대마초를 개인이 흡연하거나 소지하는 경우 합법화를 요구한 주장도 있었고, 이를 금지한 법률에 대해 위헌법률심판을 청구하기도 했지만 헌법재판소는 합헌이라는 판결을 내렸다. 그럼에도 세계적으로 대마초가 합법화되는 분위기에서 이를 받아들여야 한다는 주장이 힘을 얻을 것이고, 대마초가 유해성이 없다고 판단하거나 호기심으로 흡연하거나 소지하는 행위가 늘어나게 될 것이다. 대마초를 합법화하는 경우 다음과 같은 문제가 발생하게 될 것이다. 현재 대마사범의 대다수가 사용과 소지죄로서 이들이 강력범죄를 범하는 경향이 두드러지게 나타나고 있다. 그럼에도 대마초를 합법화한다면 대마초를 사용·소지하는 사람들은 증가하게 될 것이고 이들이 저지르는 강력범죄도 많아지게 될 것이 자명하다. 또한 도박과 복표에 관한 죄가 형법에 규정되어 있음에도 정부나 기관은 도박과 복표를 합법화하여 증설하고 이를 운영하고 있다. 도박장을 증설하면서 정부는 사회적인 문제는 발생하지 않을 것이고 오히려 세수가 증대하고 그 지역은 관광명소가 될 것이라고 했다. 그러나 결과는 도박에 중독되는 국민이 증가하고 이로 인한 사회문제가 발생하고 있다. 다음으로 담배는 성인 외에 미성년자에게는 판매가 금지되어 있고, 공공장소에서 피우는 경우 과태료를 부과하고 있다. 그러나 미성년자 흡연문제는 이미 큰 사회문제가 되어 있다. 이런 상황에서 성인에게만 대마초를 허용하고 기타 부가조건을 첨부하더라도 대마초 흡연을 하는 미성년자들은 큰 사회문제가 될 수밖에 없다. 따라서 대마초는 어떤 근거와 이유를 통해서도 합법화되어서는 안 되고 나아가 형법에 이에 대한 규정을 명확히 하여 금지기준을 강화할 필요가 있다. 형법은 마약류에 관한 규정이 아니라 현재 사용되지 않는 ‘아편에 관한 죄’만을 규정하고 있다. 시대적 오류로 보이는 형법상 규정을 ‘마약류에 관한 죄’로 개정하여 대마초·마약·향정신성의약품을 사용하거나 소지하는 행위와 이를 판매하는 행위, 장소를 제공하는 행위 등에 관해 금지한다는 입법경향을 기본법인 형법에 명시할 필요성이 있다. 대마초 합법화라는 세계적이 추세에도 우리나라는 대마초 금지규정을 형법에 명확하게 명시하고, 국민의 건강과 안전을 위해 마약류에 대한 사용과 소지행위를 불법으로 금지해야 한다. From the first day of 2014, marijuana use for personal use, such as a use for a change, has been legalized in the USA, which in turn shifts the trend towards the prohibition of the use of marijuana, narcotics and psychotropic medications to the permission of them for the purpose of personal use. In Korea there have been some claims for the legalization of the use or possession of marijuana by individuals and requests for judicial reviews, yet the Constitutional Court returned a verdict to the effect that they were constitutional. Nevertheless, it is expected that the number of people who will claim to accept the global trend toward the legalization of marijuana use, or who will judge the marijuana are not harmful to humans and thereby use or possess marijuana out of curiosity will increase. The legalization of marihuana use will result in the following consequences. The government legalized the operation of gambling and lottery tickets sale through the government agencies in contrast with the laws-in the criminal law, gambling and selling lottery tickets constitutes a crime. The government claims the legalization of gambling and lottery ticket sales will not result in any problems to national health or safety as the operation is limited in terms of space and amount; and instead increase tax revenue and make the corresponding regions tourist attractions. However on the contrary to the prediction of the government, more people become addicted to gambling, which becomes social issues. It is prohibited to sell cigarettes to minors. However the number of minors who smoke cigarettes increases and adults look the other way. If smoking marijuana is permitted, the number of minors who smoke marijuana will increase. The present criminal law stipulates ‘crime relating to opium’ and prohibits the use opium and morphine. This shall be amended as ‘crime relating to narcotics’ and the amended provision shall prohibit the use, possession and the sale of marijuana, narcotics and psychotropic medications, and the provision of places for the use of marijuana, narcotics and psychotropic medications. Despite the global trend toward the legalization of marijuana, S.Korea shall clearly state the provisions that prohibits the marijuana use and any acts relating to narcotics for the national health and safety.

Motivation of Legalizing Medical Marijuana in the US States: Case Studies on Three States (California, Colorado and Illinois)

Kim, Gook-Jin(김국진) 한국정부학회 2019 한국행정논집 Vol.31 No.3

최근 미국에서는 주(州)들의 의료용 마리화나 합법화 찬반에 대한 첨예한 논쟁이 이어지고 있다. 연방정부에서는 여전히 의료용 마리화나에 대한 사용을 규제하고 있음에도 불구하고, 2019년 현재 33개 주에서 의료적 사용을 목적으로하는 마리화 사용을 합법화 하였으며, 다른 주들도 의료용 마리화나 법률에 대한 입법화를 고려중이다. 그렇다면 33개 등 주에서는 왜 의료용 마리화나에 대한 합법화 법률을 채택하고 있는것일까? 본 연구는 3개 주(캘리포니아, 콜로라도, 일리노이주)에 대한 사례연구를 통하여 미국 주들의 의료용 마리화나 합법화의 동기요인 및 확산에 대하여 설명한다. 3개 주에 대한 사례연구 결과, 의료용 마리화나 사용에 대하여 합법화를 이룬 주 된 요인이 시민들의 의견(여론)의 힘이였다는 것을 공통적으로 발견하였다. 또한, 의료적 사용을 목적으로 마리화나가 필요한 환자들에 대한 지지와 경제성장에 대한 필요성이 개인적 또는 정치적 이데올로기를 초월할 수 있음을 발견하였다. 마지막으로, 캘리포니아와 콜로라도 사례연구에서는 국민발의 제도가 정치인들의 반대를 극복하여 합법화를 이루게 해준 중요한 정책수단이었음을 알 수 있었다. The legislation of medical marijuana in some states of the United States (US) is currently a controversial topic. Despite being in conflict with the federal government, 33 US states have legalized medical marijuana, and in 2019, several other states are considering adopting similar laws. It is reasonable to questions why some US stats adopt medical marijuana laws while others do not. This study analyzes the motivation and diffusion of legalizing medical marijuana laws through case studies on three states including California, Colorado, and Illinois. The three cases show in common that the opinions of citizens led the use of medical marijuana to be legalized in the three states. Also, it was found that sympathy for patients who need marijuana for medical purposes and the need for economic growth could be beyond the politicians’ personal or political ideology. Lastly, the cases of California and Colorado show that a ballot initiative was a good tool for medical marijuana advocates to carry out their policy intentions that were blocked through the governor and/or legislature.

Motivation of Legalizing Medical Marijuana in the US States: Case Studies on Three States (California, Colorado and Illinois)

김국진 한국정부학회 2019 한국행정논집 Vol.31 No.3

The legislation of medical marijuana in some states of the United States (US) is currently a controversial topic. Despite being in conflict with the federal government, 33 US states have legalized medical marijuana, and in 2019, several other states are considering adopting similar laws. It is reasonable to questions why some US stats adopt medical marijuana laws while others do not. This study analyzes the motivation and diffusion of legalizing medical marijuana laws through case studies on three states including California, Colorado, and Illinois. The three cases show in common that the opinions of citizens led the use of medical marijuana to be legalized in the three states. Also, it was found that sympathy for patients who need marijuana for medical purposes and the need for economic growth could be beyond the politicians’ personal or political ideology. Lastly, the cases of California and Colorado show that a ballot initiative was a good tool for medical marijuana advocates to carry out their policy intentions that were blocked through the governor and/or legislature.

The Effects of Legal and Extra‐legal Factors on Sentencing among Korean Marijuana Offenders

이민식,박미랑 한국공안행정학회 2010 한국공안행정학회보 Vol.19 No.3

Unlike active researches on marijuana offense in the U.S., there is no research that have developed characteristics of marijuana offenders or examined the predictive factors on sentencing decision. The purpose of this study is to draw the general characteristics of marijuana offenders and to investigate significant factors on sentencing outcomes in Korea. The present study empirically tested the effect of legal factor such as crime severity and prior criminal history and extra-legal factors such as the criminal social context, possibility of the community integration and demographic factors on the decision. Using the 987 official records of marijuana offenders disposed by ten district public prosecutors’ offices in six large cities from 1997 to 2001,we examined the effect of legal and extra-legal factors on marijuana sentencing throughout the OLS regression. The results is showing that legal variables have more powerful impact on the marijuana sentence than extra-legal variables. However, an attitude in the courtroom and social class showed the significant effect on the decision as extra-legal variables. The reason of the strong power of extra-legal variables could be found in the zero tolerance policy for drug related offenses in Korea. Additional implications for research and policy are discussed.