수대 돈황 막고굴과 장안·낙양 : 통일 그리고 Silk Road Dream

양은경 ( Yang Eun Gyeng ) 중앙아시아학회 2020 中央아시아硏究 Vol.25 No.2

This study explores East-West cultural interactions during the Sui dynasty by examining the structures and murals of the Dunhuang Mogao Caves, also known as the Thousand Buddha Grottos, which so far have received less attention than their importance merits. It focuses on the relationship between Dunhuang and the Changan and Luoyang regions, rather than on the interactive relationship between Dunhuang and the countries to the west of China hitherto emphasized by academic circles. Furthermore, it examines the important role that Dunhuang played during the Sui dynasty and the impact of the revival and subsequent frustration of Sui Emperor Yang's pipedream Silk Road initiative on the Dunhuang Mogao Caves. First of all, in terms of the grottos' structure, the central-pillar grottos, which were prevalent in the Northern and Southern dynasties, continued into the Sui dynasty, but there was a change in both the shape and height of the central pillar and in the Buddha statue enshrined in the central pillar. The overall structure has been confirmed as forming a set relationship with the three-wall structure, each wall having a niche. Investigation of the Mogao Caves has identified not only the popular but short-lived three-wall structure with niches characteristic of the Sui dynasty, but also a cave structure with an altar set into the front wall (正壁設壇窟), which was only built during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, and a cave structure with three walls, each with an altar (三壁設壇窟). These grotto structures have all been found to share similarities with those in the regions of Hebei, Henan, and Shanxi, which date from the Northern and Southern dynasties to the Sui dynasty. In addition to the different grotto structure, the Sui Mogao Caves contained fewer of the murals of the Buddha's Life Story and the Buddha's Previous Birth Story popular during the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, and instead featured a new style of mural, “Paintings of Sutras”. First, the Murals of the Vimalakirti Sutra in the Sui Mogao Caves depict statues of Vimalakirti and Manjusri sitting inside house-shaped buildings. In fact, this layout differs from that of the Mogao Caves in the Northern and Southern dynasties, and rather seems to be connected with the sculptures inside the grottos, represented by the Liushi Cave of the Longmen Grottos, in the Henan region. A close examination of the painting of the Amitabha Buddha's Pure Land in the Sui Mogao Caves, with the focus on the canvas structure expressing the Western Paradise World and the posture of the Amitabha Triad, revealed many similarities with those of the Nan Xiangtangshan Caves in Northern Qi. The newly discovered details of the structure and murals of the Sui Mogao Caves are different from those of their counterparts in Central Asia, which were strongly reflected in the Dunhuang grottos in the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, and are closely connected with the grottos in the Changan and Luoyang regions of Eastern China in particular. This suggests that, during the Sui dynasty, there was a close interaction between the Dunhuang region and the Changan and Luoyang regions. Among such interactions, human interactions are deemed the most important. First, as regards the movement of people, the examination of history books and cemetery names has made it possible to identify political officials who were appointed to the Dunhuang area from inland China. Second, when the Stupa to Emperor Wen of Sui was erected in 601, it is noted that the monk Jiui, who stayed in the Mogao Caves Jisang monastery-Sunggyo Temple for several years after being sent there, was identified as a monk of Northern Qi lineage. Furthermore, analysis of the Buddhist scriptures discovered in Dunhuang revealed that the monks who lived in Changan moved to the Dunhuang area, suggesting the spread of the Buddhist culture of the Changan and Luoyang regions. Lastly, Emperor Yang's Silk Road initiative was presented as the reason for and background to the massive change that occurred once again in the Mogao Caves during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang sent Baegu to Dunhuang on a diplomatic mission with various western countries, and he himself traveled to the Hexi region in 607. This fact is presumed to constitute the background to the major changes that occurred in Dunhuang, a key center of East-West exchange at that time, and in the Mogao Caves. However, Emperor Yang's Silk Road initiative lost its force with the fall of the dynasty, and, as a result, it is presumed that the excavation of Mogao Caves and new elements also lost the light of their glory.

남조 목탑의 축조기법과 주변 국가와의 교류 - 남경 西營村 목탑지를 중심으로

양은경 ( Eun Gyeng Yang ) 백제학회 2022 백제학보 Vol.- No.42

The construction technique of a stylobate for wooden pagodas built in Xiyingcun(西營村), Nanjing, China during the Southern Dynasties period was confirmed as rammed earth using a combination of earth and stones, considering that its technical level was at a basic stage. This rammed earth technique has not been found in other heritage artifacts from the Southern Dynasties except the wooden pagodas in Xiyingcun. However, it was discovered in a more technically advanced style from wooden pagodas built during the Northern Dynasties, which was about 50 to 100 years later than the previous period. Then, after some 50 years, in Korea, Baekje’s stone pagodas and Silla’s wooden pagodas have come to exhibit the same rammed earth technique, but are slightly changed further than before. The rammed earth core technique using earth and stones, which is found in wooden pagodas built during the Southern Dynasties in the mid and late fifth century in China, seems to have been transferred from the Southern to Northern Dynasties and from the Northern Dynasties to Baekje and Silla in Korea. However, such a hypothesis must still be proved, so this study focuses on other techniques of constructing wooden pagodas such as a central pillar foundation and pagoda interior. In conclusion, it was estimated that the construction structure of wooden pagodas of the Southern Dynasties in Xiyingcun has included a capital pillar placed deep underground without a pagoda interior on the ground, but is made of purely wooden materials connected to each other. In this regard, the conclusion drawn in this paper is due to studying both the past research results based on documented records and the latest excavation results of wooden pagodas in Xiyingcun. Above all, it was thought that wooden pagodas of the Southern Dynasties are related to the wooden pagodas built during Baekje’s Sabi period and the ancient wooden pagodas of Japan. Thus, the wooden pagodas’ stylobate of the Southern and Northern Dynasties was built using the same construction technique using the rammed earth combining earth and stones. However, the existence or nonexistence of a pagoda interior made them different. Therefore, this study goes further into detailed genealogy of these two origins, rather than just summarizing them. As a result, it was estimated that the Northern Dynasties’s wooden pagodas were built by inheriting the tall platform construction technique to build a high structure from the Western Zhou period, while those of the Southern Dynasties gradually adopted the construction technique, which eventually excluded the rammed earth foundation from the Eastern Han period. In addition, this study seeks to find the cause of the difference between the connection and disconnection of construction techniques used for high wooden structures built in the different periods, from wooden pagodas of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. It was thought that the natural, geographical, and environmental differences between the Southern and Northern Dynasties resulted in the succession and extinction of three different elements such as a combination of earth and stones, pure wooden pagoda, and existence of pagoda interior, let alone the technique to build a high wooden pagoda. Moreover, as a result of studying the ancient exchanges in East Asia during the Northern and Southern Dynasties by synthesizing the construction conditions and techniques of a stylobate and high structures, a different conclusion was drawn from an existing contention. It was estimated that the wooden pagodas of Baekje’s Sabi period and ancient Japan, which are characterized by the rammed earth technique and capital pillar foundation, are connected to the Southern Dynasties. Also, regarding the genealogy of the technique of constructing a wooden pagoda using the rammed earth technique and underground capital pillar foundation, and without a pagoda interior, this study emphasizes on the genealogy of the Southern Dynasties to Baekje and then Japan, contrary to the prevailing presumptions of academia. Most of all, it was judged that the tradition of the rammed earth technique using earth and stones was continued from the Southern Dynasties to Northern Dynasties and Baekje, and then Silla as well. As for the connection between them, the rammed earth technique used aggregate (gravel) for wooden pagodas at the Wangheungsa Temple Site and Yeongjeong-ri Site, which were out of the limelight, was suggested as a connecting link. Regarding the rammed earth technique using large rubble stones found at one of Baekje’s pagoda sites of the seventh century, this study leaves open the possibility of Baekje’s unique characteristics and exchanges with both the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

미륵사지 출토 벽화편의 제작기법과 제작년대-중원(中院) 김당지(金堂址) 출토품을 중심으로-

양은경 ( Eun Gyeng Yang ) 한국고대학회 2014 선사와 고대 Vol.41 No.-

The extant condition of a part of a wall mural painting excavated on the outside of the west stylobate in the central court main hall of the Mireuksa temple site(彌勒寺址). From an examination of twelve pieces of the mural wall painting the method of production, the type of patterns, the date of production, and original appearance were gleaned. First, in terms of the production method, rice straw and quartz-like white stones mixed with clay between the back and front side were spread and then sandy clay with coated over the top. After the top was lime washed in white, patterns were drawn on the extreme outside using black, red, and white pigments. White lime was painted on the upper part in several layers. This is a shared element of the wooden structures of Buddhist temples of Baekje(百濟), Balhae(渤海), China and Japan. However, the main hall of the central court at the Mireuksa temple site as with the excavated pieces of mural paintings from the rubbish heap of the Jaeseoksa temple site and the temple site of the Sanggyeong-seong Fortress(上京城) of Balhae, remains of the framework or lattice sticks across the roof of the rafters but there is no evidence of a straw rope woven together. This was damaged by fire and due to the cause the possibility is that the extant was excluded. The confirmed patterns drawn on the excavated mural painting piece from the Mireuksa temple site include bamboo, flower designs, and unknown geometric designs. Among these, the bamboo and flower designs are similar to the seventh century bamboo and linden type designs of the early Tang(唐). In addition, it is possible that these kinds of designs and the subject matter of sutra paintings and related images is flatter. Moreover, the bamboo is very similar to that of the bamboo that is drawn on the Okchung Juja(玉蟲廚子) of seventh century Japan. However, it is not possible to surmise the entire images of the wall mural painting because of the small number of pieces. It is possible to estimate the dating of the wall mural painting because of the layer of the excavation and the associated artefacts. The pieces of the wall mural painting were recovered together with Unified Silla roof tiles and Baekje roof-end tiles. The layer from which the wall mural painting was excavated is not only clearly different with that of the north side stereobate layer of the partially disturbed layer from which Goryeo(高麗) Period artifacts were excavated, both layers have a different aspect. It is clear from the results of archaeological excavations that the mural painting and artefacts correspond to Baekje or perhaps Unified Silla(統一新羅) rather than Goryeo.

고구려 미술문화의 재조명 ; 경사년신묘명(景四年辛卯銘) 금동삼존불의 새로운 해석과 중국 불상과의 관계

양은경 ( Eun Gyeng Yang ) 한국고대학회 2005 선사와 고대 Vol.23 No.-

隋代 摩崖造像에 대한 硏究 - 東部地域을 中心으로 -

양은경(Yang Eun-Gyeng) 부산경남사학회 2004 역사와 경계 Vol.50 No.-

All the Sui Buddhist grottoes and cliffs were located in northern China and can be divided into the east and west regions. The east region centered around the city of Ye, and the west region mainly comprised of Dunhuang. The east region could be further divided into two areas: Shandong and Shanxi, Henan, Hebei. My dissertation first studied the east reion. Based on a large amount of first-hand resource obtained from survey, inscriptions with dates and relevant historical records, as well as by making use of archaeological<br/> typology, I divided them into three phases. The first phase is from 581 to 588: the second from 589 to 604: and the third is from 605 to 618. In conclusion, the characteristics of the Sui Dynasty cliff sculptures can be summarized as follows. First, the Sui Dynasty cliff sculptures have strong transitional features that connected preceding and following periods. Second, the Sui Dynasty cliff sculptures still had local features. Third, the localization and secularization of Buddhist images. Because of the political unification of the Sui regime and Emperor Wen-Di's enthusiastically spreading Buddhism, common features of the Sui Dynasty cliff sculptures began to emerge. In contrast to these commonalities, Buddhism and monks of different regions still maintained the late Northern and Southern Dynasties traditions. These historical backgrounds as well as the short-lived reign of the Sui caused the distinctions between these regions.

고구려의 역사적 의의 및 계승 발전 방향 ; 대륙(大陸)과 해양(海洋)을 품은 고구려(高句麗) 불교조각(佛敎彫刻)

양은경 ( Eun Gyeng Yang ) 한국고대학회 2008 선사와 고대 Vol.28 No.-

간다라 미술의 교류 연구 특집 : Gandhara 불상과 중국 불상의 관계 비교 - 오호십륙국시기(五胡十六國時期) 불상을 중심으로 -

양은경 ( Eun Gyeng Yang ) 한국불교미술사학회 2005 강좌미술사 Vol.25 No.-

용문석굴 빈양남동 문소황후 고씨와 고구려

양은경 ( Eun Gyeng Yang ),최덕경 ( Duk Kyung Choi ) 한국불교미술사학회 2006 강좌미술사 Vol.27 No.-

중국 산동지역 수대 불교석굴과 마애조상

양은경 ( Yang Eun Gyeng ) 한국불교미술사학회 2003 강좌미술사 Vol.20 No.-

山東地區石窟和摩崖造像以濟南、靑州、東平爲中心開鑿開窟活動。 而且這些石窟和摩崖造像的開鑿年代多集中于隋代。 隋代石窟代表有濟南千佛山2개窟、龍洞1개窟、靑州駝山第2窟, 其他均爲摩崖龕像。 隋代龕代表有靑州市駝山3洞、云門山1、2洞, 濟南市玉函山摩崖龕、龍洞龕、東佛욕寺龕、千佛山小龕, 東平縣的白佛山第1、2龕。 隋代開鑿的洞窟數量雖然不少, 但該地區佛敎窟龕長期以來沒有引起學術界的重視。 這是因爲除靑州駝山第2窟等기개石窟之外, 一般洞窟都爲龕形洞窟或利用天然洞窟、崖面開鑿的龕, 幷且規模也不大。 80-90年代, 諸城市、靑州市發現一大批佛敎造像爲中國國內外學術界所촉目。 對山東佛敎造像專題硏究的論文陸續刊登, 提出與往日不同的意見。 此后, 學術界越來越重視硏究該地區佛敎造像, 然而有關該地區石窟的硏究, 仍然顯得흔薄弱, 從考古學角度進行的綜合硏究還從未有過。 隋之前, 山東地區佛敎藝術多利用金銅、石頭、木頭、泥塑等雕造單體造像。 但是進入隋王朝, 該地區有活躍的開窟活動。 隋代山東石窟和摩崖造像, 在平面·窟頂·正面刑制、造像組合方面, 仍承襲南北朝時期此地區摩崖造像龕的傳統。 但是倒凹字形石窟平面形式、正壁雕佛像的整體造像組合的特点是隋代出現的。 在造像組合方面也爲不規整的組合。 如一佛、一菩薩、二佛、二菩薩、三佛、三菩薩等無脅侍像或不規整的造像組合。 這些事實均流行于隋代。 如此隋代新出現的石窟形制、造像組合等的特点, 除了山東地區之外其他地區也出現而漸漸流行。 但是該地區摩崖龕像的方形正面形制與同時期東部地區流行的北齊響堂山式圓拱龕、菩提樹圓拱龕不同, 成爲隋代山東地區的特点。 隋代山東地區石窟造像和摩崖造像最大的特点爲鉤紐式袈裟、交領衫、交領式袈裟。 而且這些造像特点也同樣流行于同時期其他地區, 倒了唐代却不流行。 因此我們可知, 這些造像特点是隋代全國性樣式。 換言之, 鉤紐式袈裟、交領衫、交領式袈裟樣式是眞正的隋代造像藝術風格。 隋代山東地區菩薩像把裙腰上升到胸部高處。 這種菩薩像着衣方式也見于其他地區的單體造像。 這種着衣方式摹擬當時婦女的常服。 不過山東地區菩薩像多穿着二層裙子, 這種菩薩像樣式也成爲山東地區的因素。 隋王朝平陳, 就結束了南北分裂的局面, 從而使社會安定, 經濟日益繁盛。 突厥、吐谷渾等的邊患也기乎消除, 國力也日益强大。 鞏固中央的統一, 均田制、府兵制等各種制度的成功, 總會給社會、平民生活帶來安定。 上層地方官員從中央長安安排到各개地區, 而且地方官員移動範圍是全國。 在這些北周系上層地方官吏中, 他們地管統治的東部地區, 也有參與建佛寺活動。 由于隋文帝召北齊地論學、華嚴系統高僧及其弟子入京, 東部地區與長安之間僧人有頻繁的往來。 文帝人壽年間全國立舍利塔, 均選名僧, 從長安派到全國各區。 如此社會穩定, 在各개方面東部與其他地區之間有自由的往來。 而且這種交流以長安爲主發生關系。 因此隋代新出現許多新的因素, 尤其是新出現的石窟形制、造像組合、窟龕造像樣式主要受長安地區北周系統的影響而有變化。 根据現存銘文題記、圖象, 我們可知隋代山東地區石窟和摩崖造像主尊多爲阿彌陀佛。 由于邑義、法社等民間信仰團體和老百姓積極參與開窟、鑿摩崖龕的活動, 造像題材方面也日益注重阿彌陀佛。 在實際修行中, 邑義、法社都特別重視戒律。 民間信仰團體邑義、法社都期望往生淨土。 而且到隋代時, 有關阿彌陀淨土的經典已經譯出흔多, 這種簡便易行的學說較易爲普通民衆所接受。 北齊時期以皇室貴族、高僧爲中心熱烈崇拜的華嚴佛主盧舍那佛, 到了隋代東部地區大住聖窟等仍有雕造。 不過山東地區却極爲??見, 被阿彌陀佛取代。 隋代晋冀豫地區佛敎主要繼承北齊以慧光、法上爲主的업都佛敎, 仍多爲法上、信行、僧稠法系。 尤其是北齊地論、華嚴系統的靈裕、慧遠的活動對晋冀豫地區佛敎、佛敎窟龕有深遠的影響。 隋代업都不再是一개王朝的首都, 已經衰落。 因此不像北齊時期那樣能구對山東地區有흔强大的影響。

고대 한국인의 중국 내 사원, 불상 조성과 중국 불교문화와의 관계 -삼국~통일신라시대를 중심으로-

양은경 ( Eun Gyeng Yang ) 한국불교미술사학회 2007 강좌미술사 Vol.29 No.-