Correlation between cultural distance and acceptance of transliteration : Comparison of Korean menu translation in English and Japanese

Han-Nae Yu 한국통역번역학회 2022 통역과 번역 Vol.24 No.1

This study identified correlation between cultural distance and acceptance of transliteration by surveying reader response to Korean menu translation in English and Japanese. First, the study reviewed the standard translation guideline for translating the names of Korean foods to English and Japanese released by the National Institute of Korean Language (NIKL). The portion of transliteration strategy in English (1.7%) was much lower than that in Japanese (11.5%). Second, the study conducted a quantitative survey of 300 respondents to examine the understanding and acceptance levels of native speakers. Native English speakers displayed a very low acceptance for transliteration (meaning-19.0%, expression-21.6%) compared to Native Japanese speakers (meaning-39.3%, expression-38.6%), and respondents who were more familiar to Korean culture showed higher acceptance to transliteration, empirically proving that there is an inverse correlation between cultural distance and acceptance of transliteration. The study showed that reader response research to transliteration can be used as a tool for gauging the cultural distance between source culture and target culture.

『同文類解』 滿洲語 한글 表記의 轉字的 性格에 대하여

오민석 한국어문교육연구회 2017 어문연구(語文硏究) Vol.45 No.4

The purpose of this paper is to examine the writing Manchu in Hangeul in Dongmun yuhae is considered as transliteration more than transcription. This purpose contrasts with the existing position which has been researched in a transcription or phonological aspect. For examining, in Section 2 the paper described the whole characteristics of the headwords being investigated briefly. Section 3 examined the Hangeul-only writing on a variety of aspects in order that criteria for the correspondence between Hangeul and Manchu can be established. Firstly, according to the investigation of diacritical marks, presented the problem which isn’t solved in reference to existing vowel harmony. And mentioned that this problem is solvable by approaching orthography or syllable, not phonology or phoneme. Beyond that, gave a description of evidences which can consider writing Manchu in Hangeul as transliteration. Such as comparing the epilogue of Dongmun yuhae and the record of elokhae, a strict sequences of characters, another feature of transliteration other than diacritical marks, and a mistake due to being interpreted in transliteration only. The paper shows that in those days, compiler used Hangeul as transcription maybe have a deep concern by examining the Hangeul-only writing in Dongmun yuhae in an orthographic aspect. And it is significant that discovering the value of Dongmun yuhae which is the first published literature of transliteration in Joseon Dynasty. 본고는 『同文類解』(1748)의 滿洲語 한글 表記가 轉字的인 측면을 고려하여 만들어졌음을 고찰하는 데 목적이 있다. Ⅱ장에서는 이에 앞서 전수 조사한 『同文』의 표제어의 특징들을 살펴보았다. Ⅲ장에서는 한글 表記와 滿洲 文字의 대응을 위한 기준을 설정하기 위해서 다양한 측면에서 한글 單獨 表記를 살펴보았다. 먼저 기존의 母音調和와 관련된 해석의 문제점을 지적하였으며 音韻論的인 접근이 아닌 文字論的인 접근에서, 音素 單位가 아닌 音節 單位의 접근에서 이러한 문제를 해결할 수 있음을 언급하였다. 그 밖에 轉字 表記로 볼 수 있는 근거들로 『同文』의 跋文, 「語錄解」의 기록, 文字 排列 制約의 엄격성, 區別 記號 이외의 轉字的 특성, 轉字的 관점으로만 해석되는 오기 등을 제시하였다. 이 글은 『同文』의 한글 表記를 文字論的인 측면에서 살펴보고자 한 것으로 당시 편찬자가 한글이라는 文字를 轉字 表記로 이용하는 데에 깊은 고민이 있었음을 알게 해주고, 『同文』이 조선에서 간행된 최초의 轉字 表記 문헌으로서의 가치를 발견하였다는 데에 그 의의가 있다.

효과적인 외래어 이형태 생성을 위한 확률 문맥 의존 치환 방법

이재성 한국콘텐츠학회 2007 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 Vol.7 No.2

An information retrieval system, using exact match, needs preprocessing or query expansion to generate transliteration variants in order to search foreign word transliteration variants in the documents. This paper proposes an effective method to generate other transliteration variants from a given transliteration. Because simple rewriting of confused characters produces too many false variants, the proposed method controls the generation priority by learning confusion patterns from real uses and calculating their probability. Especially, the left and right context of a pattern is considered, and local rewriting probability and global rewriting probability are calculated to produce more probable variants in earlier stage. The experimental result showed that the method was very effective by showing more than 80% recall with top 20 generations for a transliteration variants set collected from KT SET 2.0. 완전 일치 방법을 주로 사용하는 정보 검색 시스템에서 외래어 이형태를 검색할 수 있도록 위해서는 외래어 이형태를 자동 생성하는 전처리나 질의어 확장이 필요하다. 본 연구에서는 하나의 외래어가 입력되면, 이를 근거로 실제 사용될 만한 외래어 이형태들을 효과적으로 생성하기 위한 방법을 제안한다. 혼동 자소를 단순하게 치환하는 방법은 불필요한 이형태를 과도하게 생성하므로, 본 연구에서는 실제 문서에 사용된 외래어 이형태들로부터 혼동 패턴을 학습하고, 이를 확률로 계산하여 생성 순서를 조절하였다. 특히, 혼동 패턴에서 좌우문맥을 고려하고 지역 치환 확률과 전역 치환 확률을 계산하여 조기에 많이 사용하는 이형태를 생성하도록 하였다. KT SET 2.0에서 추출한 이형태 데이터에 대해 실험한 결과, 상위 20개의 생성으로도 평균 80% 이상 찾아내어 이 방법이 매우 효과적임을 보였다.

청학서 만·한 대역에 보이는 음절 대칭과 비대칭

소뢰,임다영 한중인문학회 2023 한중인문학연구 Vol.81 No.-

This paper studies Cheong-hak-seo, and finds that when Korean is transcribed into Manchu, even though the phonetic systems of Manchu and Korean do not perfectly correspond, Korean transliterations of Manchu text maintain a "syllable symmetry", where each syllable in Manchu corresponds to one syllable in Korean transliteration. However, there are four types of syllables or syllable combinations, namely Vš, Ci'yV, Cu'wV, and Cio'wV, that violate the syllable symmetry rule and exhibit "syllable asymmetry" in transliteration. Interestingly, special cases of syllable symmetry are observed in Cu'wV. Through an investigation of the historical phonetics of Jurchen language and the principles of Korean transliteration, it is found that Manchu syllable Vš, which is actually closer to a bisyllabic pronunciation, is thus transliterated into two syllables in Korean. On the other hand, Manchu syllable combinations Ci'yV and Cio'wV, although represented by two syllables in written form, are considered monosyllabic with glide consonants in actual pronunciation, resulting in one syllable in Korean transliteration for two syllables in Manchu. As for Cu'wV, which has two variant pronunciations [Cu'wV] and [CwV] in Ching-era Manchu, corresponding Korean transliterations also exhibit variation with either two syllables or one syllable.

移鼠와 야소(耶蘇) ― ‘예수’ 관련 한⋅중 음역어의 사용빈도 및 어휘 고찰

신아사 중국어문학회 2023 中國語文學誌 Vol.- No.85

본고는 표준국어대사전에서 외래어 ‘크리스마스’와 한자어 ‘성탄절’ 관련 표제어와 뜻풀이를 검색하는 과정에서, Jesus에 대응하는 음역어 ‘야소’와 외래어 ‘예수’를 주요 연구대상으로 삼고 관련있는 한중 음역어 연구를 진행했다. 영어권 말뭉치 및 한·중·영 학술 데이터베이스에서 ‘예수’ 관련 음역어 사용빈도를 분석함으로써 해당 단어의 사용 양상을 거시적으로 파악하고 비교하였으며, 시대별․문헌별로 중·한 음역어를 정리함으로써 양국 음역어의 변천과 영향 관계를 파악할 수 있었다. This study was initiated through an extensive examination of headwords and definitions related to the loanword ‘크리스마스’ (Christmas) and the Sino-Korean word ‘성탄절’ (聖誕節) as listed in the Standard Korean Dictionary. The focal point of this research lies in the exploration of the Korean and Chinese transliterations corresponding to ‘Jesus’, specifically the transliteration ‘야소’ (耶蘇) and the foreign word ‘예수’ (Jesus). Employing a methodological approach, the study analyzes the frequencies of these transliterations in relation to ‘Jesus’ in English corpora, as well as within academic databases including the Korea Citation Index (KCI), China Academic Journals (CAJ), and the Web of Science Core Collections (WoS). Through this analysis, the study aims to achieve a holistic understanding and comparative perspective of the usage patterns of these transliterations. Furthermore, by categorizing the Korean and Chinese transliterations of ‘Jesus’ both chronologically and textually, the research endeavors to shed light on the changes and reciprocal influences of transliteration practices within the two languages.

특집 : 불전 번역의 전통과 현대적 가치 ; 동음이의 음역어의 난맥상 분석 -가라를 중심으로-

김미숙 ( Mi Suk Kim ) 인도철학회 2010 印度哲學 Vol.0 No.29

한역(漢譯) 불전을 우리말로 번역할 때, 독음이 동일하여 중첩적인 동음이의 음역어가 발생하는 사례가 적지 않다. 예컨대 ‘나라, 다라, 마라, 바가, 바라, 바사, 반나, 발리, 발타, 발타라, 사라, 사리, 사타, 사파, 수라, 시라, 시파, 타라, 파나, 파라, 파리’ 등은 매우 다양하고 중첩적인 음역 용례를 보여 주고 있다. 여기서는 그러한 음역 예 중에서 ‘가라’만을 선택하여 분석하였다. 특히 동음이의 음역어가 야기하는 의미 체계에서의 난맥상이 어느 정도인지를 다각도로 분석하고, 그 해결 방안으로서 다음 네 가지를 제시했다. 첫째, 이중번역으로 인해서 발생할 수밖에 없는 동음이의어의 경우에는 음역어를 최소한으로 줄이고자 하는 노력이 필요하다. 둘째, 누역(累譯)의 경우에는 다양한 판본들을 비교 분석한 뒤에 용어를 최대한 통일시키는 작업이 긴요하다. 셋째, 동음이의 음역어의 경우에 중첩적인 의미들을 구분하기 위해서는 해당 원전 또는 한역본에는 없는 단어일지라도 문맥에 따라서 그 의미를 한정시키고 보충하는 말을 첨가할 필요가 있다. 넷째, 축역으로 인한 동음이의어의 경우에는 원음을 복원시켜서 번역함으로써 의미의 혼동을 방지할 수 있을 것이다. 특히 이 점은 원전을 반영함으로써 한역 불전의 용어를 간명하게 하고 동시에 의미의 명료성을 높이는 데에도 적잖은 역할을 할 것이다. This paper focuses on just a word of the transliterated Korean Gara. The main contents are `the analysis on the problem of transliteration` and `the analysis of transliterated Korean Gara on the basis of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka Collection` and `the analysis on the chaotic state of the original words and meaning of the transliterated Korean Gara`. There are too many homonyms, homophones, polysemies in the Chinese version of the Buddhist Tripitaka Collection. Because of this fact, an exact undertanding of its meaning, in context, was difficult to determine. What is worse, there were many mistranslations between the Chinese version of the Buddhist Tripitaka Collection to its Korean counterpart. However, there are a number of examples that demonstrate that these mistranslations occur frequently. This writer will provide several examples to support it in this paper. This writer made an analysis of the sanskrit or pali words of Gara in the translated Korean Buddhist TripitakaCollection which is based on the Chinese version of the Buddhist Tripitaka. This was a difficult process, either. Because many texts of the original Chinese Tripitaka were scattered and lost, it was impossible to resolve the Gara`s original meaning in the Tripitaka from the transliterated words. In consequence, this writer resolved the meaning of seventy-six kinds of Gara in the translated Korean Buddhist Tripitaka Collection. She has disclosed meanings of seventy-six examples of Gara. It was caused by homonyms, homophones and polysemies. The seventy-six meanings of Gara belonged to thirty-three different words of sanskrit and pali. The thirty-three original words of Gara were translated in eighteen transliterated Chinese words. In conclusion, the writer suggests four methods to disambiquate the hypernyms of Gara.

신약 고유명사의 새로운 표기법 제안 — 『개역개정』 사도행전의 인명과 지명을 중심으로 —

박정수 (재)대한성서공회 성경번역연구소 2022 성경원문연구 Vol.- No.51

This paper reviewed proper names of people and places in NKRV and KCT as well as the most recently published the New Korean Translation The New Testament and Psalms (NKT NT&Ps), and transliterated the names in the original NTG28 text of Acts by the following below. The proposed new transcription follows the basic principles for foreign word transcription by the National Institute of Korean Language. In the consonant, that does not follow the method of the NKRV’s transcription from all the polisive as ‘ㅂ, ㄷ, ㄱ’, but the transcription of polisive ‘π, τ, κ’ ‘φ, θ, χ’ into ‘ㅍ, ㅌ, ㅋ’, and the polisive ‘β, δ, γ’ into the aspirated sound ‘ㅂ, ㄷ, ㄱ’ instead of the fortis ‘ㅃ, ㄸ, ㄲ’. In the vowel, ‘υ’ is written as ‘ㅟ’, but when ‘υ, ει, υι, οι’ is settled as ‘i’ and used for modern person and place names, it is written as ‘ㅣ’. The basic principle of foreign words transcription states the following: “The established usages of foreign words are respected, but the scope and usage are determined separately.” In this regard, proper names of people and place shall be established and indicated according to the following categories and guidelines. First, remove ‘-스’ that occurs in the final ending, but for the transliteration of the vowel in front of -s, follows the idiomatic use in the NKRV. Second, the names of Jesus, twelve disciples, and the other apostles and the titles of the four Gospels shall follow established transcriptions, but Greek names such as the seven Hellenistic Jews and names of the epistles shall be newly transliterated. Third, if the same person is mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments, it shall be based on the Hebrew sound. But if the person has the same name, it shall follow the transcription of Greek while Roman officials and Latin names follow the transcription of Latin. Fourth, if the place name is the same as in the Old Testament, it shall be based on Hebrew, but if it is settled as a Greek place name, it shall follow Greek. Fifth, the names of city or state formed during the Hellenistic period shall follow the transcription of Greek, reflecting the abbreviation and ‘ι’ assimilation phenomenon. Sixth, cities where Latin names are preferred, such as capital cities of the Roman period, follow the transcription of Latin.

초기 漢譯 불전에서 원어의 변용 사례_Bhadraka와 Āḷavaka를 중심으로

정승석 인도철학회 2010 印度哲學 Vol.0 No.28

Bhadraka-sutta에서 촌장의 이름으로 언급되는 bhadraka가 잡아함경 권32에서는 竭曇으로 음역되고, 별역잡아함경 권7에서는 驢姓으로 의역된다. 한편 잡아함경 권50에서는 竭曇이 귀신의 이름으로 阿臘과 함께 등장한다. 또한 별역잡아함경 권15에서 竭曇은 驢駒(당나귀)로, 阿臘은 曠野로 번역되어 있다. 원천 자료에서 阿臘의 원어는 āḷavaka로 확인되지만, 竭曇에 해당하는 원어는 없다. 음역에 의거하면 귀신 竭曇의 원어도 bhadraka가 될 것이지만, 의역에 의거하면 그 원어는 gadrabha(당나귀)가 될 것이다. 그러나 관련 설화와 다른 전거를 통해 竭曇=驢姓의 원어는 bhadraka, 竭曇=驢駒의 원어는 gadrabha로 확정할 수 있다. 이처럼 역자들의 번역어 채택에는 일관성이 없고, 이로 인해 종종 원의를 곡해할 수 있는 상황도 발생한다. 이는 한자라는 중국어의 특성에서 기인한 것이고, 역자의 이해와는 무관할 것일 수 있다. 그러나 한역으로 불전의 원의를 파악해야 하는 입장에서는 본론에서 제기하고 검토한 문제, 즉 원어의 변용과 음역의 다양성을 충분히 고려해야 한다. A headman of one village is called bhadraka(or gandhabhaka) in Bhadraka-sutta of Saṃyutta Nikāya. This name is transliterated into jié-tán(竭曇) in Chinese version Vol. 32 of Saṃyukta Āgama, and translated literally into 'donkey family'(驢姓) in another Chinese version Vol. 7 of it. At the same time the jié-tán(竭曇) is appeared as a name of ghost(yakkha) together with another ghost called ā-là(阿臘) in Chinese version Vol. 50 of Saṃyukta Āgama. Besides in another Chinese version Vol. 15 of it, the jié-tán(竭曇) is translated into 'donkey'(驢駒), and the ā-là(阿臘) is translated into 'the wilds'(曠野). Following up a clue of these words, though the original word of jié-tán(竭曇) is verified as āḷavaka in Āḷavaka-sutta, there is not the original word of jié-tán(竭曇). In this case, according to transliteration the original word of ghost jié-tán(竭曇) will be also bhadraka(or gandhabhaka). While according to literal translation the original word of it will be gadrabha(or donkey). But in the light of related narratives and other sources, it can be confirmed that the original word of headman jié-tán(竭曇) equal to 'donkey family'(驢姓) is bhadraka(or gandhabhaka), and that of ghost jié-tán(竭曇) equal to 'donkey'(驢駒) is gadrabha. As above Buddhist texts translated into Chinese lack consistency in translated terms. As a result, readers would misconstrue the original meaning of a word so often. This misconstruction may be resulted from the characteristic of Chinese letters, and may have nothing to do with understanding of translators. However when we have to understand the original meaning of Buddhist texts on the authority of the Chinese version, we ought to investigate a point in dispute thoroughly, that is, the transfiguration of the original word or the variety of transliteration.

실담 문자(siddhamātṛkā) 음사(音寫) 연구

김현덕(Kim Hyeon-deog) 불교학연구회 2016 불교학연구 Vol.46 No.-

인도 유래의 문자나 언어를 흔히들 범자(梵字)라는 말로 표현하곤 한다. 실담(悉曇)도 이중 하나로, 엄밀히 말하자면 불경(佛經)의 기술 문자를 의미한다고 하겠다. 중국을 경유하여 우리나라에 전래된 실담 문자(siddhamātṛkā) 자형, 즉 한국형 자형은 여러 진언집(眞言集)과 범종(梵鐘) 등에서 확인하는 한, 통일성이 결여되어 있다고 말할 수 있다. 여러 사정으로 ‘실담학(悉曇學)’이라고 부를 수 있는 체계가 갖춰 지지 못한 상황에서, 이는 각계 연구자들에게 혼란을 야기시키는 가장 큰 원인이라고 하겠다. 최근에 이르러 일련의 연구성과들이 발표되어, 한국 실담학 정립의 토대로 기능할 수 있을 것으로 평가되지만 체계성이라는 측면에서 아직 미흡한 것 또한 사실이다. 본 연구는 선행연구들을 토대로 실담 문자 연구에 대한 하나의 접근법을 제시하려는 목적에서 수행되었다. 실담 문자는 물론, 이를 통해 전해지고 있는 진언(眞言,mantra) ․ 다라니(陀羅尼, dhāraṇī)에 대한 기존 연구의 대부분은 국어학적 입장에서의 접근법을 취해왔다. 그래서인지 한글 음사(音寫)에만 초점이 맞춰져 왔고, 그 결과여러 진언들이 ‘한자 음사어의 음운을 바탕으로 하여 범자(梵字)의 음운도 고려하여 한글로 음사되었다’는 주장으로 일관하게 되었다. 본고에서는 우리에게 잘 알려진 일부 진언들의 범자 자형과 한자․ 한글 음사 자형을 비교․ 분석하며 논의를 진행한다. 특히 ‘파드마(padma)’, ‘스바하(svāhā)’, 범자음가 ‘o, u’, ‘브흐룸(bhrūṁ)’, ‘사르바(sarva)’ 등의 단어를 통해, 동일한 범자 자형에 대 한 상이한 한자 및 한글 음사어 대응상과 실담 자형의 상위(相違) 등을 지적한다. 이는 한국 실담 문자의 변천과 용례의 추이를 체계화하며, 나아가 한글 음사 규칙 등에대한 신뢰할 만한 토대자료로서 기능할 것으로 여겨진다. 아울러 이에 앞서 범자에 대한 이해를 돕기 위해 인도 기원 문자에 관해 간략히 정리한다. Sanskrit (梵字) is characters or language of Indian origin. Siddham (悉曇) is part of this, but, strictly speaking, it refers to the characters that had been used to describe the Buddhist sutra. The form of Siddhamātṛkā-character in Korea which was introduced through China is lacking in unity as long as we look through The Book of Mantras (眞言集) and the temple bells. The imperfect system of ‘the study of Siddham (悉曇學)’ is one of the biggest causes of confusion for scholars. Recently, books and treatises on the Siddham have been published, and are rated as they possibly will be the foundation of the Korean study of Siddham. However, they do not give us entire satisfaction in organization. This study was performed to present a different approach to the study of Siddhamātṛkā based on the preceding research. The earlier studies for Siddhamātṛkā, mantras (眞言) and dhāraṇī (陀羅尼) usually have taken the viewpoint of the Korean linguistic methods. Therefore, they were focused on the Korean transliteration, so, as a result, it has been asserted that various holywords are depicted as the Hangul, based on the phonemes of Chinese transliteration with reference to those of Sanskrit(or Siddham) characters. In this study, I progress the discussion through analyzing and comparing between the well-known mantra character-forms according to the sound of Chinese characters and Hangul. Especially, I treat the discrepancy(相違) of Siddhamātṛkā-character and correspondence of the character according to sound between Chinese characters and Hangul to the corresponding Sanskrit character through words such as ‘padma’, ‘svāhā’, the Sanskrit sounds ‘o, u’, ‘bhrūṁ’, ‘sarva’, etc. I expect that this work could systematize the changing progress and examples of Korean Siddham character-forms. Furthermore, it will serve as a trustworthy basic resource for Korean transliteration. Finally, I arranged some characters of Indian origin helpful for understanding Sanskrit.

외국 지명 표기의 원칙과 실제

김한샘 한국사회언어학회 2012 사회언어학 Vol.20 No.2

Kim Han-saem. 2012. The Principle and Practice to Transcribe the Name of Foreign Place in Korean. The Sociolinguistic Journal of Korea 20(2). pp. 213-237. This paper discusses the basic principle of representing loan words and the real spelling in the dictionary. The current Loan word Orthography of Korean have two mainstays: the one, a loan word belongs to Korean, and the other, a loan word is written in original pronunciation. Though the regulation for representing loan word is existing, there are various way for representing the name of foreign place in actual. The most important thing is not theoretical argument but user's convenience. The name of places based on traditional Korean sound for Chinese character in the culture sphere of Chinese Characters - centered familiar place and important inaspect of history and people - are used in common and recognized as normative notation. According to the frequency of courpus and internet, the ratio of Chinese names of place written with conventional way based on Chinese character is much more than that of Japanese names. As for names of country, there are three kinds of synonym - official full names, generic names, and names by transliteration. The official names were fixed by the National Institute of the Korean Language in cooperation with Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade.