발레에서 낭만주의 이후 고전주의가 등장한 이유에 대한 고찰

심정민 영남춤학회 2017 영남춤학회誌 Vol.5 No.1

A transition period between Classicism and Romanticism, the 18th century has some highly important meanings in terms of the theory and the trend of arts in history. First, it was both a period of the transition to new manufacturing processes called the Industrial Revolution and a period of the French Revolution, the far-reaching social and political upheaval in France. These two epochal events facilitated industrialization, urbanization and the rise of the public in the whole European nations and helped people pursue new orders, norms and values away from the ancient regime. Second, the mimetic theory of art was largely replaced by the representational theory of art. While the former focused on the standardizable elements like the case of proportion equipped with completeness and unity, the latter was a concept with which artists could freely express natural emotions and sentiments away from non-humanistic rules and norms. Third, as far as the trend of arts was concerned, there appeared Romanticism as a new attitude or intellectual orientation that can be seen as a rejection of the precepts that typified Classicism. While Classicism emphasized the intellectual capacity of reason and regulated arts ― confining them under the principle of aesthetics ― Romanticism respected emotions and imagination and pursued more liberal and sentimental arts. What is worthy of note here is that the genre of ballet met the age of Classicism after that of Romanticism, reversing the general trend that Classicism is usually followed by Romanticism. As part of the reasons, the art of dance got off to a much belated start compared with other genres of arts, thus making it virtually impossible for the genre to establish the completion of forms — the typical characteristic of Classicism that flourished between the 16th and the 18th century. Besides, ballet came to be established as an independent performance art in the early 19th century and met the age of Romanticism that was the dominant trend of arts during the period. That was one of the reasons why classical ballet emerged after the romantic ballet unlike the cases of other arts that introduced Romanticism right after Classicism. After all, ballet made a continuous development until the late 19th century when its style was completed. For example, a lot of best known ballet forms were created by Marius Ivanovich Petipa (1818-1910) being considered to be the most influential master choreographer in classical ballet in the late 19th century. They include: diverse types of technical skills; divertissement that offers complicated and diversified techniques and spectacles or attractions; grand pas deux that is intensive and stylized; and mime that plays the role of dialogues. It was not until the late 19th century that classicism focusing on forms in arts represented the genre of ballet ― a trend that appears to swim against the current of the times.and the 18th century. Besides, ballet came to be established as an independent performance art in the early 19th century and met the age of Romanticism that was the dominant trend of arts during the period. That was one of the reasons why classical ballet emerged after the romantic ballet unlike the cases of other arts that introduced Romanticism right after Classicism. After all, ballet made a continuous development until the late 19th century when its style was completed. For example, a lot of best known ballet forms were created by Marius Ivanovich Petipa (1818-1910) being considered to be the most influential master choreographer in classical ballet in the late 19th century. They include: diverse types of technical skills; divertissement that offers complicated and diversified techniques and spectacles or attractions; grand pas deux that is intensive and stylized; and mime that plays the role of dialogues. It was not until the late 19th century that classicism focusing on forms in arts represented the genre of ballet ― a trend that appears... 18세기는 역사와 예술론과 예술사조에 있어서 매우 중요한 의미를 가지고 있다. 첫째, 시대적 배경으로 산업혁명과 프랑스대혁명이 발발하였다. 이로 인해 전 유럽에 산업화와 도시화 그리고 대중의 등장이 야기되었으며 구시대의 낡은 체제에서 벗어나 새로운 질서와 규범과 가치를 추구하게 되었다. 둘째, 예술론의 측면에서도 모방론에서 표현론으로의 대변혁을 이루게 된다. 모방론은 예술에서 완전성과 통일성을 갖춘 비례와 같이 정형화시킬 수 있는 요소를 중요시하였던 한편 표현론은 고전 문화의 비인간적인 규칙과 규율로부터 벗어나 자연스러운 감정과 정서를 중요시하는 개념이었다. 셋째, 예술사조에서는 고전주의와 대립하여 낭만주의가 등장하기에 이른다. 고전주의가 이성이라는 지적(知的) 능력을 중요시하면서 예술을 갖가지 미의 법칙으로 규제하고 거기서 벗어나는 것을 금하였던 반면에 낭만주의는 감정과 상상력을 존중하면서 보다 자유롭고 정서적인 예술을 지향하였다. 본 연구에서 주목해야할 점은 고전주의 이후 낭만주의 사조를 맞이한 타 예술분야와는 달리 발레에서는 일반적인 흐름을 거스르면서 낭만발레 이후 고전발레를 맞이하게 되었다는 점이다. 그 원인으로는 우선, 무용예술은 타 예술분야에 비해 상당히 늦은 출발을 보였으므로 17-18세기 당시 고전주의의 주요 특질인 형식의 완성은 불가능한 상황이었다. 또한, 발레는 19세기 전반에서야 독립된 공연예술로 자리매김할 수 있었으며 당대를 지배하는 예술사조 즉 낭만주의에 동참할 수 있었다. 그것이 고전발레 이전에 낭만발레가 등장할 수밖에 없었던 한 이유가 된다. 마침내, 고전발레는 발레가 꾸준한 발전을 거듭하여 그 형식을 완성한 19세기 후반에 이르러서야 확립될 수 있었다. 이를테면 복잡하고 다양한 동작기교(테크닉), 볼거리를 제공하는 디베르티스망, 강도 높고 양식화된 그랑파드되, 격식 있고 호사스러운 장면 연출, 대사의 역할을 하는 마임 등은 19세기 후반 ‘고전발레의 아버지’로 불리는 마리우스 프티파에 의해 확립되었다. 바로 그때서야 예술의 형식을 중요시하는 고전주의라는 명칭이 발레에 붙여짐으로써 시류를 거슬러 올라간 듯한 인상을 남긴 것이다.

Ste. Genevieve Library as a criticism of Classicism

강태웅 대한건축학회 2013 Architectural research Vol.15 No.1

The purpose of this paper is to reconsider and revaluate Ste. Genevieve Library designed by Henri Labrouste as a criticism of Classicism. Considered as the epitome of the early structural Rationalism the modern historian tried to focus only on the iron structure of the library. Arguably, the structural concern was one of the ideas that the architect wanted to manifest in the library. As a rebel against a view of the Académie des Beaux-Art the notions of H. Labrouste were radical. He criticized an autistic Classicism with an echoing Claude Perrault’s doubt about the myth of classical beauty. These radical ideas firstly showed in his report of the Grand Prix de Rome and must have been developed through several discussions for a novel: Notre-Dame de Paris by V. Hugo. ‘Ceci tuera cela’, one of the chapter of the novel, was generally known as the death of architecture due to the invention of the printing press around Renaissance period. We, however, consider that even though the historical background of the novel is the Gothic period the ideas, which was discussed with Labrouste, related to the death of architecture was not the architecture itself but classical architecture recomposed during Renaissance period. As the first design work the library must be reflected his ideas, which were developed, and manifested his criticism of the Classicism indirectly.

Ste. Genevieve Library as a Criticism of Classicism

Kang, Tae-Woong 대한건축학회 2013 Architectural research Vol.15 No.1

The purpose of this paper is to reconsider and revaluate Ste. Genevieve Library designed by Henri Labrouste as a criticism of Classicism. Considered as the epitome of the early structural Rationalism the modern historian tried to focus only on the iron structure of the library. Arguably, the structural concern was one of the ideas that the architect wanted to manifest in the library. As a rebel against a view of the Academie des Beaux-Art the notions of H. Labrouste were radical. He criticized an autistic Classicism with an echoing Claude Perrault’s doubt about the myth of classical beauty. These radical ideas firstly showed in his report of the Grand Prix de Rome and must have been developed through several discussions for a novel: Notre-Dame de Paris by V. Hugo. ‘Ceci tuera cela’, one of the chapter of the novel, was generally known as the death of architecture due to the invention of the printing press around Renaissance period. We, however, consider that even though the historical background of the novel is the Gothic period the ideas, which was discussed with Labrouste, related to the death of architecture was not the architecture itself but classical architecture recomposed during Renaissance period. As the first design work the library must be reflected his ideas, which were developed, and manifested his criticism of the Classicism indirectly.

군너 아스플룬트와 알바 알토의 고전주의 건축에 관한 비교연구

김현섭(Kim Hyon-Sob) 대한건축학회 2010 대한건축학회논문집 Vol.26 No.10

This paper aims at comparing Gunnar Asplund's and Alvar Aalto's architectures in their classical periods (respectively ca. 1915~28 and 1918~27) to clarify similarities and differences of them. Under the stream of the so-called "Nordic Classicism", they produced classical buildings in their own countries: Asplund in Sweden and Aalto in Finland. Despite similar features between their classical buildings, the two architects illustrated some decisive differences in their context and architectural attitudes. First, Asplund's classical period, followed by the National Romantic stage, showed us his mature architectural language, but Aalto's classical period was his starting point as architect when he should learn from history and his precedents. Second, in the period, Asplund's influence on Aalto was so significant that the relationship was like that of "teacher-pupil". But the situation changed at the end of 1920s when they converted to functionalism, and they came to mutually influence each other afterwards. Third, Aalto's conversion to functionalism in 1927 was 1~2 years earlier than that of Asplund, and soon Aalto tried to obliterate his classical period that seemed not that glorious. But Asplund's classical motif could be regarded as "archetypal" rather than as a style. which re-appeared in his buildings of 1930s. The study of their classical period architecture helps us deepen and broaden our understanding of modern architecture in general, beyond just the two architects' or the Northern European scopes.

프랑스의 바로크적 경건성과 대 콩데의 장례식

이영림(Lee Young-lim) 湖西史學會 2011 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.59

This article aims at restructuring the relation of the baroque and the classicism in the context of political history of the seventeenth century France on the basis of recent studies on Louis XIV. The Baroque defined as the transitional trend of art from the classicism of the Renaissance to the Rococo of the eighteenth century and used as a concept of the periodization sometimes has been caused a confusion. In France in particular, the Baroque was regarded as an aspect in contrast with the classicism. The concept of the Baroque defined in this context contains the meaning of criticism that it is nothing but an expression of unstable state of emotion lacking in the strict regularity and rules in the ancient times. This is bound up with the French political history of the seventeenth century. This article tried to review the true character of the Baroque by focusing on the historicity of the Baroque. Accordingly, it researched how the Baroque, which had been born with the catholic reformation in the second half of the sixteenth century in Italy, was introduced into France and disapproved, and survived actually in the French historical background in the seventeenth century. Furthermore, it reviewed the life and the funeral of Grand Condé, a model of baroque figure as a microscopic example that embodied vividly the destiny of the french Baroque.

영미 모더니즘과 흄

봉준수 국제언어인문학회 2008 인문언어 Vol.10 No.-

In spite of his fast-changing intellectual trajectories, T. E. Hulme (1883-1917) tends to be neatly labeled as a precursor of Imagism and Classicism (more precisely, ‘Classicist Modernism’) in many literary histories. This labeling helps literary historians place or demarcate Anglo-American Modernism conveniently in their historical narratives, but the convenience comes with a cost. For example, Hulme the Bergsonian disappears from the view even though his inadvertent Romanticism, as exemplified in his celebration of the French philosopher’s romantic concept of intuition, serves as one of the foundations of his poetic theory. Here, Hulme’s much anthologized essay “Romanticism and Classicism” is a case in point. Although it is often hailed as a seminal text of Modernism, it holds on to Romantic notions of poetry emphasizing individuality and subjectivity; the Hulme of “Romanticism and Classicism” is a transitional figure straddling Romanticism and what is to become Classicist Modernism. In fact, what has been rather uncritically viewed as Hulme’s Classicist and Imagist position is a faithful reflection of his age, and accordingly, he can be seen as a site in which the intellectual currents of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century collide, disappear and/or merge. As a whole, Hulme’s writings reveal how promptly he mirrors his turbulent and dynamic age rather than expressing his own original perspectives or individuality, whether philosophical or literary. It is precisely this lack of originality--“impersonality” if we borrow T. S. Eliot’s term--that makes him significant and ‘useful’ in delving into the dynamic nature of Anglo-American Modernism in its early phase.

17세기 프랑스 왕립 미술아카데미의 강연(Confèrence) : 근대 미술이념의 형성

김정락(Kim Jung Rak),이현애 서양미술사학회 2010 서양미술사학회논문집 Vol.33 No.-

The french art of the 17th century could be defined as result from political quarrels between the traditional guild and the academy that was coming up. The royal academy of art founded in 1648 had been systematized treading in the steps of the italian model, At same time it developed the modern system of art that overcame the method of guild to produce and to educate the art. It was fundamental subject and purpose of the academy, that the theory of art must belong to the realm of science and the basic principles for art critic have to be established. For these purposes the conference was a very effective event. The conference offered a place where all members of the academy took apart to state his own art theory in depend on a exemplary work in the past and eventually to bring it to discourse. The conference of the academy which was the most political event among many organizing principles hold for ca. 10 years since 1664. This conference became a important method with which the art could be raising from the manufactural state of the guild to the scientifical one. Namely the conference promoted the members of academy to get more intellectual and theoretical attitude and corresponded to the fundamental idea of academy almost perfectly, Furthermore it was a kind of strategy with which the academy intended to confirm its exclusive authority against to guild or any other institutions. Charles Le Brun himself argued the rigid theory of painting based on the Classicism in the conference. Works of Raffaello and Poussin for example are selected for this purpose. Le Brun made a rank of genres and he chose most of all the historia for the conference. He maintained the possibility of the unifying historical text and the pictorial representation and established a strict dogma in that he conceptualized disposition of picture, correctness of dessin, clarity and harmony of colors as differentaited principles. Though the conference has been established institutionally, problems that emerged during the organizing and the publication of references of the conference become object for the critical study of art history The references to establish the doctrine have been recorded generally by amateur or dilettante. Therefore opinions of those could be involved more or less. Therefore the texts of the french academy which are handed down up to now and regarded as important sources for the art history do not inform original references by the artists, but had became book of regulation with which and taking adventage of their position a few scholars like Testelin or Felibien would give a prominence to the theoretical part of art. The principles and cannons of art acquired by the conference played a important roll obviously to raise the art to the scientific era. And these principles and cannons provided scholars and artists a background for the upcoming of the classicism. In other words for the birth of the Neo-Classicism the academy and its main event, namely the conference, have a most important status. But many problems were caused also by the conference. Above all the armchair character of the reference stressed more principal standpoint then practice of the art and consequently the other diverse styles and phenomenons of art were disregarded. The Quarrel between the Rubenist and the Poussinist since 1667 is a noticeable topic which reveals pros and cons of the conference.

서양예술사에 나타난 자연과 인간

김현돈 대동철학회 2005 大同哲學 Vol.30 No.-

이 글의 목적은 선사 시대 동굴 그림에서 근대 미술에 이르기까지 예술의 시각적 표상에 매개된 자연과 인간의 관계를 분석, 해명하는 데 있다. 구석기 원시인들은 인간과 자연, 예술과 자연을 분리불가능한 통일체로 본 일원론적 자연관에 따라 주술적인 믿음을 기반으로 자연의 감각적 인상을 사실적으로 재현했다. 신석기 시대는 경제 체제의 변화로 일상적 경험의 세계와 이상화된 초현실적 세계를 대립시킨 이원론적 애니미즘적 자연관에 따라 자연주의가 쇠퇴하며 예술은 양식화, 추상화되는 경향을 띤다. 기원전 4-5세기 경 고전기 그리스인들은 합리적, 과학적 세계관에 힘입어 종교적 숭배를 지양하고, 세계와 인간을 이상화된 척도에 따라 재현했다. 주술과 공포, 숭배의 대상이던 자연이 심미적 대상으로 떠오르는 것은 인간이 자연에 대한 주체자로 자각적 의식을 갖는 16세기 르네상스기이다. 신화와 종교화의 들러리에 머물러 있었던 풍경이 미술의 전면으로 돌출하여 비로소 풍경화로서 독립된 장르가 된다. 고전주의는 아카데미즘의 전통에 따라 엄밀한 수학적 비례와 균제를 바탕으로 자연을 객관적 탐구의 대상으로 삼아 다양한 개별 자연의 이미지에서 선택과 종합을 거쳐 이상화된 풍경을 그린다. 낭만주의는 고전주의의 규범성을 탈피해 정서적 직관주의를 강조한다. 자연을 유기적 생명체로 인식하여 자연에 대한 주관적 경험과 감정을 묘사했다. 자연주의는 고전주의 풍경화에서 신화와 종교 등 비자연적 요소를 걷어내고 아카데미즘을 거부한다. 자연주의 풍경화에는 산업혁명의 여파로 훼손되고 붕괴되어가는 농촌 자연의 삶에 위기감을 느낀 도시민들의 ‘원초적 자연'에 대한 그리움이 짙게 묻어 있다. This essay is to study the relation between nature and man mediated to visual representation of art from the cave art in the prehistoric age to the modern art. Paleolithic man had represented a sensuous impression of nature according to monistic view of nature that see a man and nature, art and nature as a undividable unification on the base of the magic belief. In the Neolithic era art have a tendency to be stylization and abstraction according to the dualistic view of nature as a result of a transformation of the economic system. About 4~5 B. C a Greek of classical era sublate the religious cult, represented a world and man according to the ideal measure under the influence of a reasonal and scientific viewpoint. In Renaissance man became conscious subjectiveness to nature then nature rise to the surface as a aesthetic object. Landscape which remained in a background of a mythological painting and religious painting be independent genre for the first time as a landscape painting then it emerged from the fine arts. Classicism represent, make nature an object of objective study, a ideal landscape according to the tradition of academism be based on a strict mathematical proportion and symmetry. Romanticism give emphasis to emotional intuitionism through the canon of Classicism. Romanticism described a subjective experience and emotion on nature according to regard it as a organic life. Naturalism eliminate unnatural element of the mythos and religion etc. from the classical painting and deny an academism. In naturalistic painting be thickly stained with longing for 'basic nature' of urban citizens who fall into crisis on the natural life of a rural district which deforming in the aftermath of an industrial revolution.

빈고전주의 음악의 자율성과 보편성에 이르기까지: 그 살진 토양으로서의합스부르크 황제와 귀족의 음악 후원 및 문화

나주리 한국서양음악학회 2015 서양음악학 Vol.18 No.2

This study explores the music patronage and culture of the emperors and aristocracy of the Hapsburg Empire, which provided a ground basis from which Viennese Classicism developed autonomy and universality, and arrives at the following conclusions. For those wielding absolute and strong power in the Hapsburg Empire, political and religious objectives were an important part of the music patronage. But these people also had considered music an important spiritual virtue over generations, and protected music across various genres with expert interest and methods. By protecting and sponsoring music that reconciles ‘old’ styles and ‘modern’ styles, ‘old’ languages and ‘modern’ languages, and secular styles with religious styles, they helped a universalistic form of music to materialize. Amid this atmosphere, the key role in musical culture and patronage shifted from the emperors to the aristocrats. These aristocrats, as colleagues as much as patrons, helped to provide the impetus for the development of the music that would lead their time as well as the future. Also helping creative composers to discover meaning transcending the ages in the musical heritage of the past, they became the critical ground basis for the realization of musical autonomy and universal musical values. 본 논문은 빈고전주의 음악의 자율성, 보편성에 살진 토양을 마련해준 합스부르크 제국 황제와 귀족의 음악문화 및 음악후원에 대해 탐구하며, 다음의 결론에 이른다. 합스부르크 제국의 절대적이고 강력한 유력가들은 정치적, 종교적 목적을 음악후원의 한 기틀로 삼았으나, 동시에 수 세대에 걸쳐 음악을 중요한 정신적 덕목으로 삼으며 전문가적 관심과 방식으로써다양한 장르의 음악예술을 보호했다. 아울러 ‘옛’ 양식과 ‘현대적’ 양식, ‘옛’ 언어와 ‘현대적’ 언어, 세속적 양식과 종교적 양식이 공존하는 음악, 혼합양식의 음악을 보호, 후원함으로써보편주의적 음악 상(像)을 구현했다. 이러한 기조 가운데 18세기 중반 황제에서 귀족으로 음악 문화 및 후원의 주체가 옮겨지고, 이때 귀족들은 후원자를 넘어 동료로서 동시대와 미래를 주도할 음악에 발전의 동력을 마련해주었다. 과거 유산들의 시대 초월적 의미마저 발견해내 독창적 작곡가들에게 알린 이들의 공적은 음악예술의 자율성과 보편적 가치 실현을 위한중요한 밑거름이 되었다.

문법 교과서의 높임법 기술과 그 문제 -국정 문법 교과서와 현행 독서와 문법” 교과서를 대상으로

이정택 ( Jung Tag Lee ) 한국문법교육학회 2015 문법 교육 Vol.25 No.-

Korean honorific category is so peculiar and complicated that we cannot find similar categories in other languages. Then we should understand the real characteristics of this category in order to communicate properly in this language. So the description of this category should be correct. But the descriptions in current Korean grammar textbooks have a several problems as follows. 1. Although there is no grammatical downgrading expression in Korean, the current Korean grammar textbooks have taken three styles(Hage-system, Haera-system and Haeyo-system) for downgrading ones. 2. These textbooks describe Hao-system and Hage-system as live systems. But Hao-system is a sort of classicism. Then we should not describe this as a live one. Hage-system should be described apart from other live systems, because this one is very restricted. 3. The current Korean grammar textbooks take Haera-system as a formal style, but this one is informal and non-honorific. 4. The Korean honorific particles(-k’eseo and -k’e) are regarded as words and the honorific expressions including these particles are taken for lexical ones. But these particles represent cases and it is clear that case is grammatical. So the honorific expressions including these particles are grammatical ones. The problems above came from the government designated Korean grammar textbooks. At least upcoming Korean grammar textbooks should not be made like the current ones.