명치시대의 배금주의 대두와 의리에 대한 고찰―오자키 고요의 『삼인처』와 『금색야차』를 중심으로―

스기모토가요코 ( Sugimoto Kayoko ) 한국일어일문학회 2017 日語日文學硏究 Vol.100 No.2

본고는 근대 일본의 배금주의 대두에 있어서 그 흐름과 오자키 고요의 작가 의식을 알아보고자 신문소설을 통해 분석하고 해석하였다. 일본의 경제발전 전과 후에 해당되는 시기에 연재된 고요의 『삼인처』와 『금색야차』의 텍스트 대조가 그것이다. 「배금」을 키워드로 해서 각각 인물묘사와 금력이 그려지고 있는 방법에 대해 비교·고찰 했다. 『삼인처』에서는 그때까지 소설 소재로 사용되지 않았던 실업가의 모습이 그려져 있다. 빈농 차남으로서 태어난 카츠라기요고로가 고향을 떠나 에도로 간다. 그리고 시대 흐름으로 막대한 부를 축적하고 세 명의 애첩을 둔다는 설정이다. 이것은 돈의 상승이미지를 나타내며 돈으로 모든 것을 해결한다는 것에 부정적인 이미지가 없다는 것을 나타낸다. 돈의 다양한 가능성- 구심력·신비성·욕망의 충족·지위의 역전 -이 그려져 있고, 전근대적 도덕관으로서의 가치인「의리」조차 배금의 동기로 이용되고 있음을 알 수 있었다. 한편,『금색야차』에서는 돈이냐 사랑이냐 하는 주제가 명확하기 때문에 배금주의에 맞서는 자세도 볼 수 있다. 또한 금력을 가지는 인물의 묘사에서는 배금의 허무함도 표현되어 있다. 「의리」는 배금주의와 대립적인 가치로서 나타나고 있었다. 두 작품은 부국강병이라는 슬로건 아래에, 국책으로서 배금이 장려되었던 시기에 나왔다. 그리고 청일 전쟁을 거쳐 근대 자본주의의 모순이 드러나고 있던 가운데, 구시대의 도덕관 사이에서 갈등하였던 고요가 가졌던 고뇌의 결과이며 의식의 변화라고 할 수 있다. In this study two serial stories were analyzed and interpreted so as to find out for the human mind-set about the raising the mammonism in modern Japan. This study compared the two text, 『three wives』 with 『konjiki-yaksha』 by Ojaki Koyo, which were published as serial stories during the time before and after economic development of Japan. The key-word is the money worship and the subject was viewed about the way in which each character and the money power are described. In the 『three wives』, the character of the businessman was described, which was not used as the material for writing a novel till then. Katsragi Yogoro ,who was born as the second son of a poor farmer, leaves his hometown and moves to Edo. Also this novel is setting that he accumulates a big wealth following the trend of the time and he has three wives. This shows that with the rising image of the money it is not negative to try to solve all the things by means of money. Many different possibility of money power - centripetal force, mystique, fulfillment of desire, and turn the status around etc. - is depicted, additionally faithfulness which is the value as outdated ideas about morality is used as a motivation of money worship. On the other hand, in the novel 『konjiki-yaksha』, because the subject is clear; Money or Love, the attitude against the mammonism is showed. The faithfulness or loyalty was thoughted as a value against the mammonism. Under the slogan of national prosperity and military power, the two works were appeared in the era when money power was encouraged as a natural policy. While a contradiction of the modern capitalism was emerging going through the Sino-Japanese War(of 1894~1895), Koyo faced the conflict between the old-fashioned ideas about morality and it was the result of his anguish and the change of his consciousness during the era.

악마(惡魔)의 「정의(正義)」: 「정의」로 빙의(憑依)한 「돈」

강희원 한국법철학회 2018 법철학연구 Vol.21 No.2

Our modern society is a market society. Everything is being traded on the market. The market is dominated by money. Money is the king of the market. Love, honor, power and God, Jesus, and Buddha ect. can be sold and bought in the market if we have money. Whether you like it or not, it is no exaggeration to say that there is no place in our society where is free from money. Today we live in an extremely monetarized world. The world where is dominated by money is a place where various desires clash with one another. In this paper, I consider how the relationship between money and justice is established in the developed course of European capitalism. To get a clue to the discussion, I read Shakespeare's famous play, The Merchant of Venice, again from a legal point of view. If it would be allowed to evaluate the historical changes in Christian attitudes toward capitalism, it would be liked to say that the religion of Christianity which was inherently anti-capitalist has been transformed into a capitalist religion with the development of capitalism in Western Europe. If that is the case, how the absolute justice of Christian God and the relative justice of money have come to a compromise in this transformation of Christianity and reached the present state where the Money was going to accede to the New God in the history of Europe? I am arguing that justice is replaced by money, taking the Tort Liability Law as an illustration. 이 글은 브록체인(brock chain)이라는 새로운 디지털네트워크기술에 의해서 창안된 가상화폐 비트코인(bitcoin)이 2017년 우리사회에 몰고 왔던 가상화폐열풍을 계기로 해서 쓰여졌다. 그 열풍 속에서 필자는 「돈」이라는 말을 따라 자유로이 “유쾌한 여행”을 즐겨보려고 했지만, 사실상 실패하고 말았다. 그래서 이 글은 「돈」의 세계로의 “즐거운 여행기”가 아니라 그 어휘들을 억지로 나에게 복종시킨 불쾌한 노동의 결과물이 되어 버린 느낌이다. 우리가 살고 있는 현대사회는 「시장사회」다. 모든 것이 시장에서 거래되고 있다. 시장에는 「돈」이 지배한다. 「돈」은 시장의 제왕이다. 사랑도, 명예도, 권력도 그리고 하나님도, 예수님도, 부처님도 돈만 있으면 시장에서 다 살 수 있다. 이렇듯 좋든 싫든 간에, 우리 사회에서는 「돈으로부터 자유로운 영역」은 없다고 해도 과언이 아니다. 오늘날 우리는 극도로 화폐화된 세계에 살고 있다. 돈이 지배하는 세상은 다양한 욕망들이 서로 이글거리면서 충돌하는 장(場)이다. 이 논문은 돈과 정의의 관계가 유럽자본주의사회의 성립 및 전개과정에서 어떻게 형성·변화해왔는지를 역사적으로 살펴보면서 그것을 비판적으로 재해석하는 데에 주안점을 두고 있다. 먼저, 논의의 실마리를 얻기 위해서 법학적 관점에서 셰익스피어의 유명한 희곡 『베니스의 상인』을 다시 읽었다. 16세기 자본주의의 발흥기에 돈을 추구했던 이른바 흡금귀(吸金鬼) 유대인과 사랑과 우애를 중시하는 크리스트교도 간에 체결된 금전소비대차계약의 이행에 대한 재판을 소재로 하고 있는 셰익스피어의 희곡 『베니스의 상인』에 나타나 있는 당시 돈과 정의에 관한 관념을 실마리로 시작해서, 서유럽에서 자본주의가 전개되어 가면서 교회와의 갈등 속에서 신(神)의 무(無)시간적인 「절대적 정의」가 인간의 유한한 「상대적 정의」와 타협해 왔던 장구한 과정을 간단히 돈과 정의의 관계로 치환해서 생각해 보았다. 그 다음, 태생적으로 반자본주의적인 종교이었던 크리스트교는 서유럽의 자본주의의 전개와 더불어 자본주의 종교로 변질되어 간다. 이러한 변질과정에서 돈이 서유럽에서 크리스트교신을 대체하는 새로운 신(神)으로 등장한다. 그러한 역사 속에서 어떻게 신에 의한 절대적 정의와 화폐에 의한 상대적 정의가 타협을 이루어서 오늘날에 이르게 되는지를 살펴보면서 오늘날 돈이 정의에 대체되어서 정의와 돈(화폐)이 불가분의 관계로 밀착되는 것을 불법행위법을 실례로 해서 논급한다. 돈이 연쇄적인 보복전쟁을 아무리 중단한다고 하더라도, 생명을 돈으로 계산한다는 것이 과연 정의일 수 있는가에 대해서는 여전히 의문이 남는다. 오늘날 다수의 법학자들은 생명침해에 대한 탈리오원칙(talio principle)에 의한 인류의 연쇄적인 보복(報復)전쟁이 금전배상원칙(money compensation principle)으로 진화하면서 인류의 정의가 진정으로 높은 궤도에 올라가게 되었다고 평가하고 있다. 그런데 오히려 어떻게 생각하면 탈리오원칙에서 금전배상원칙으로 타락하면서 인류의 정의가 후퇴한 것이 아닌지? 그리고 온통 모든 것들이 화폐관계로 바뀌어서 돈이 「정의」 자체로 둔갑해 있는 오늘날의 우리 생활세계는 그저 미친 듯이 저 낮은 바닥을 향해 가고 있는 것이 아닌가 하는 생각이 든다.

『아테네의 타이몬』: 배금주의 비판과 탈비극적 비전

박우수 한국셰익스피어학회 2019 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.55 No.3

Timon of Athens, which is usually regarded as the last of Shakespeare’s tragedies, is a dramatic satire on the money economy and commodifications of humanity and arts in general. Timon, who has no past, is a self-generated man presuming himself the self-sufficient and infinite nature feeding and breeding all his friends by his magnanimous generosity. He dreams of a brotherhood of friendship built on mutual credit. When his dream of infinite affluence fails, he becomes a misanthrope uttering cynical diatribes against the mercantile society and its inhabitants worshipping the new god of Mammon. Timon, the man-hater, equates the alchemic gold “soldering close all impossibilities” with whores and courtesans doing anything for gold. Where the new god of gold is worshipped, ‘policy’ and expediency are the powers that be, and what remains is confusion and chaos. Timon’s sense of abhorrence of infidel man and his society is realized in his moralistic and ironic satire abhorring (whoring) all the establishments. What is singular with Shakespeare’s satire in the play is that Timon the satirist is the very target of his satiric criticism since Timon’s jaundiced eyes see things as he wants to see, not as they are. The playwright’s satire reflects his own recognition of the “sick” perspective of a tragic character, and it opens the way to his final vision of the tragicomedies.

“Business is Business”: A Re-reading of the ‘Parable of Unjust Steward’ (Lk. 16:1-8a)

양재훈 한국신학정보연구원 2022 Canon&Culture Vol.16 No.2

The parable of Unjust Steward has often been interpreted as an exhortation about the wise use of money in times of eschatological crisis. This article challenges this traditional view, arguing that the characters of the parable are not positive role models for readers to follow but mammon worshippers (16:13). It examines the parable from the perspective of the patron-client and the shame-honour culture and contends that they are ‘the sons of this generation’ who are crafty in making a deal with each other for their own interests. It understands that Jesus scoffs at their savoir-faire, reading his exhortation at verse 9 as an irony, and teaches that one should not rely on mammon. This reading of the parable is coherent with Luke’s views on possessions found in the parables of the Rich Fool, the Prodigal Son, Dives and Lazarus, and his teaching on invitation (Lk. 14:12-14).

하나님과 맘몬 : 가서 너도 이와 같이 하라

심상길 한국문화신학회 2009 한국문화신학회 논문집 Vol.14 No.-

According to Jesus, God and Mammon are two mastε, rs. You can’t serve both. But, Jesus praises the shrewd money manager, and lauds those who grow their wealth in his parables(for example, Lk 16:21; 16: 19-31). MAMMON is a biblical term, Aramaic in origin, that refers to all material wealth or corporeal substance. Its reference is to one’s possessions, one’s property and equity, and, most importantly, one’s spiritual attitude toward all things owned. An important measure of any individual is the way in which that person views the matεrial world around him. The array of personal possessions which enhance and crowd our lives is boundless. People define themselves by what they own and consider wea1th and valuable possessions to be a blessing. Success is also often defined in material terms. In contrast, the teaching of the Jesus Christ in the synoptic Gospels were dedicated to freeing mankind from the slavish pursuits of material mammon. Of all Jesus' parables, none has worked its way deeper into the Christian consciousness as the Parable of the Good Samaritan(Lk 10: 25 - 3 7). The phrase “Good Samaritan" is used to describe any person who goes out of his way to help another. It’ s a theme that newspaper reporters love to feature because it captures readers' attention and fires the imagination. In this parable “ Jesus told every Christian, ‘Go and do likewise" ’ (10:37b). Jesus isn’t content just to define what “ neighbor" means. He commands us to do as the Samaritan does, to show mercy to our fellow man who is in need. I must ask myself, what we, as disciples of Jesus, are supposed to leam from this story. And for me the answer is to examine my own heart. What motivates me? For me, Jesus' command, “Go and do likewise," means that I must value acts of mercy over personal productivity. What does it mean for you?

Convenanting for Justice in the Economy and the Earth

박성원 한국민중신학회 2008 Madang: Journal of Contextual Theology Vol.0 No.9

Many global people’s movements have responded to neo-liberal economic globalization regime. What kind of response would or should the church make? What would be a unique response that the church would or should make? First, what is my poor neighbour, theologically? We need to ask, not only who my poor neighbour is, but also what my poor neighbour is. We need to be theologically clear on the issue of poverty. How do we perceive poverty, theologically? We are not talking about what I might call “voluntary poverty” or honest poverty found in the dictionary that is encouraged by some religions like Buddhism and others. Second, would humanitarian approach be enough in dealing with victims of systematic injustice? Would the confessional approach make a difference? Since Accra, I keep saying that there is a fundamental difference between a humanitarian approach and a confessional approach in theological dealing with the poor. If one takes a humanitarian approach my poor neighbour still remain as the other. What does this mean to us in the face of systematic injustice by which 80% of God’s people on earth suffer because of global economic injustice and the whole eco-system of God’s creation is groaning for salvation? Third, what is our priority between church unity and global justice? One of the major concerns for those who were hesitant to go for confessing action in Accra was the worries of possible division of the churches. I still remember our debate between myself and a colleague and friend of mine from Europe on this issue. For those who reached the stage and readiness to confess they can go ahead while those who have not yet reached that stage may express their solidarity with those who confessed and may join the confession at a later stage. Fourth, should the ecumenical witness to economic justice be pragmatic or prophetic? One of the major critiques on our analysis was that the churches’ analysis on neo-liberal economic globalization was not scientific, practical and thorough enough. Of course, the churches’ analysis can never be scientific enough. However, what should be the basis for the churches’ witness to economic justice? Should it be practical and pragmatic or prophetic? Fifth, whom do we serve; God or mammon? All the ecumenical documents pointed out many negative consequences of neo-liberal economic globalization, like the growing gap between the rich and the poor, ecological destruction, erosion of democracy, colonization of consciousness, etc. From a theological point of view, one of the most serious problems would be mammonism.

다르덴 형제 영화 연구

박재호(Park Jae Ho) 한국영화학회 2008 영화연구 Vol.0 No.35

The human relation of modern society is severed almost because of the mammonism. The movies which Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne make are a lump of contradiction. Their movies always dig the mental state of betrayers, criminals and revengers. characters are bereft of the wife and are isolated in the human relation that the trust disappears with the indifference of the circumstance. The hero tries to overcomes his environment in dim society and struggles to free himself from his existence. And He must be isolated finally. Their movies, Falling off from the sympathy toward the hero, keep exploding the narrational structure without helping the reality of the individual. But, characters of movies which Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne make never neglect that they are on the brink of ruin. In that way, Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne deliver the sense of real to the spectator. The movies which Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne make are very peculiar and creative. They express An isolation's image of the individual, the cutting among people, the sense of the real through a poor actor and the background of materialism as camera technic and sound. In that way, they have created the grammar of the movie which is suitable to the subject. In addition to, They make Use of the documentary techniques. So, we can see the movies of Dardenne's with the sense of the real. For that reason, We can say that their movies are very peculiar and creative. They investigate the contradictional human and the society system through theirs working. Also, they make us realize the importance of the recovery of the human relation and mutual understanding. Theirs movies give us the universality and truth through the Using of the documentary techniques which be involved the subject of humanism. That's why We can feel the sympathy to Dardenne's movies.

The Conception of Human Desire in the Renaissance Drama

송홍한 한국고전중세르네상스영문학회 2017 중세근세영문학 Vol.27 No.1

The Renaissance was by no means a sharp break with the morality and philosophy of the Middle Ages. Even the greatest changes are slower and less complete than we like to imagine. Thus, though the Renaissance asserted men's right to pursue the satisfaction of human desire, the Renaissance drama has a theme of the vanity and transitoriness of all earthly desires and achievements. This paper explores the conception of human desire in the Renaissance drama by examining Marlowe's Doctor Faustus and Jonson's The Alchemist and Volpone. At the cost of his soul, Faustus chooses to fulfill his aspiring desire, and falls into eternal damnation. Mammon's desire for the power of gold brings about his self-destruction along with the defeat of the gullible public. Volpone's desire is also gradually aggravated until it falls into its own trap. In the Renaissance terms, human desire can be defined as a driving force for self-realization, but it more often than not results in the disintegration of human society and its members' failure. Compared with the modern attitudes about human desire, those of the Renaissance are more sceptical and negative. The Renaissance drama warns its readers of the danger of human desire before they affirm the positive aspect of human desire.

성서적 관점에서 본 나눔

이혁배 한국실천신학회 2012 신학과 실천 Vol.0 No.30

이 논문은 성서적 관점에서 나눔이란 신앙실천을 이해하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 성서에서 돈이나 재물은 긍정적 측면과 부정적 측면을 지닌다. 성서는 돈이나 재물을 선한 것, 곧 하나님의 선물로 이해하기도 하고 악한 것, 즉 불의한 맘몬으로 간주하기도 한다. 돈이나 재물이 하나님의 뜻에 맞게 사용되면 선한 것이 되지만 그렇지 않은 경우 악한 것이 되고 만다. 그런데 성서에서 돈이나 재물을 하나님의 뜻에 맞게 사용한다는 것을 무엇을 의미하는가? 그것은 돈이나 재물을 이웃과 나누는 것을 뜻한다. 성서는 나눔을 기독교인이 반드시 실천해야 할 신앙행위로 간주한다. 여기서 나눔은 크게 두 가지, 곧 세속적 나눔과 종교적 나눔으로 나뉠 수 있다. 세속적 나눔의 대표적 형태에는 기부와 세금이 있고, 종교적 나눔의 대표적 형태에는 헌금이 있다. 성서에 따르면 기독교인들은 돈이나 재물을 이웃들에게 은밀하게 기부해야 한다. 그래야만 기부수혜자는 기부자로부터 독립적일 수 있게 된다. 세금은 지속성이나 안정성에서 기부보다 더 뛰어난 나눔의 형태이다. 성서는 이런 장점을 지닌 세금의 납부를 기독교인의 의무로 간주한다. 헌금은 맘몬을 축출하는 중요한 영적 행동이다. 그리고 바쳐진 헌금은 가난한 이웃을 지원하기 위해 사용된다. 이런 이유에서 성서는 헌금을 성실히 드려야 함을 기독교인들에게 가르치고 있다. This study aims to introduce the biblical aspect of sharing. Money or property has not only a positive but also a negative dimension in the Bible. According to the Bible, money or property becomes religiously good, if it is used for God's purpose. Otherwise money or property becomes spiritually evil. What does it mean to use money or property for God's purpose in the Bible? It means to share money or property with neighbors. The Bible regards sharing as a necessary practice of Christians. By the way, forms of sharing in the Bible are divided into two, namely the secular and the religious sharing. While donation and tax belong to the secular sharing, offering is included in the religious sharing. According to the Bible, Christians have to donate money or property to their neighbors anonymously. In this case, the beneficiaries can be independent of the donators. Tax is a more stable form of sharing than donation. The Bible looks upon paying taxes as a duty of Christians. Offering exorcises the Mammon. Offered money or property can also be used for helping the poor. For these reasons the Bible insists that Christians should make an offering of money faithfully.

〈아바타〉에 나타난 생태적 가치

구미정(Mi-Jung Koo) 한국인문사회과학회 2011 현상과 인식 Vol.35 No.1·2

미국의 제임스 캐머런 감독이 만든 < 아바타> 는‘3D’입체영화의 새 장을 엶으로써 전 세계 흥행 기록을 다시 썼다고 평가된다. 그러나 이와 같은 기술과학의 놀라운 성과를 경탄하는 목소리가 높은 가운데, 한편에서는 이 영화가 서양문명의 고질병인 제국주의를 옹호한다며 불편한 심기를 드러내기도 했다. 이를테면, 지구인이요 백인이며 남성인‘제이크 셜리’가 원시적 자연과 여성성을 상징하는 판도라 행성의 구원자로 나오는 것은 아무래도 크리스토퍼 콜럼버스를 영웅시하는 제국주의적ㆍ가부장적 시선을 닮았다는 것이다. 〈아바타〉 에 대한 정치적 독해가 분명히 의미 있는 시사점을 던져 주는 것은 사실이지만, 그럼에도 불구하고 필자의 눈에 이 영화의 최대 장점은 바로 오늘의 지구 문명이 지향하고 있는 지배적인 가치를 비판적으로 드러내는 데 있다고 본다. ‘지구의 종말’담론이 심심찮게 거론되는 오늘의 생태 위기 상황에서 이 영화가 재현하고 있는 판도라식 삶의 방식은 인류에게 정의롭고 지속가능한 미래를 선택하도록 도전하며 유혹한다. 이 글은 〈아바타〉 에 대한 생태적 독해를 시도하려는 것이다. 대중이 이 영화에 열광한 이유는 지구 문명에 대한 환멸과 가상의 별‘판도라’에 대한 동경이 동시에 작용한 때문일 것이다. 이러한 관점에서 〈아바타〉 를 읽으면, 우선 그것이 맘몬 숭배에 저항하는 텍스트임을 알게 된다. 또한 여성 생물학자인‘그레이스 어거스틴’의 캐릭터는 오만하고 탐욕적인 과학을 넘어서 겸손하고 애정 어린 과학으로 나아가는 가능성을 타진케 한다. 결국 필자는 타자를 이용하고 지배하고 정복하는 데 익숙한 지구인의 삶의 방식을 치유하려면 ‘샤하일루’(shahaylu : 판도라에서 연결 혹은 결속을 의미하는 나비족의 언어)로 압축된 판도라식 삶의 가치를 체득해야 한다고 제안하면서 글을 맺는다. 〈Avatar〉(2009), a science fiction film written and directed by James Cameron, broke several box office records right after its release and became the highest-grossing film worldwide. The film was admired its highly advanced technology so called ‘3D’ viewing and even ‘4D’ viewing. However, some people have criticized the film due to its covert supporting imperialism which has been one of the deep-seated problems of western civilization. For example, Jake Sully(starred by Sam Worthington), who is a white earthling, becomes the savior of Pandora as if Christopher Columbus played a messianic role for ‘primitive’ people from an imperialistic perspective. Despite such a political reading of 〈Avatar〉 gives us some meaningful implications, it seems to this author that the best point of this film is its critical disclosing about the predominant values of our comtemporary civilization. Navi, the inhabitant humanoids of Pandora, who live in harmony with the nature and worship a mother goddess called Eywa, teach us how to live for just and sustainable future. This article, thus, attempts to read 〈Avatar〉 through the ecological eyes. In doing so, we come to understand that it is the fine text to resist mammonism. And also, the way of doing science conducted by Dr. Grace Augustine(Sigourney Weaver), a female botanist, can be the alternative model of ‘humble and compassionate science’ instead of arrogant and acquisitive science. This article suggests to embody the Navi’s way of life that is symbolized ‘shahaylu’ to heal our chronic disease to exploit and rule over other human beings as well as the nature.