MING LOYALIST FAMILIES AND THE CHANGING MEANINGS OF CHOJONG’AM IN EARLY NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHOSŎN

HAN SEUNGHYUN 계명대학교 한국학연구원 2018 Acta Koreana Vol.21 No.1

The descendants of Ming loyalists who had migrated to Chosŏn with Prince Pongnim in 1645 were an integral part of the Ming loyalist ideology advocated by the Chosŏn court during the eighteenth century. The significance of their presence in Chosŏn, however, waned with the weakening of this ideology and the rise of Northern Learning in the nineteenth century. Under these adverse circumstances, the Ming loyalist families in the early nineteenth century employed various strategies to re-emphasize Ming loyalism and consolidate their Ming loyalist identity; an initiative they viewed as critical in justifying their presence in Chosŏn society. This article traces the variety of these identity-reinforcing efforts by the Ming loyalist families, ranging from shrine-building and compilation efforts to intermarriage. It focuses on the ritual structures built in Chojong’am by these descendants and analyzes how the symbols of Ming loyalism embedded in this place by the Chosŏn literati in the seventeenth century were manipulated by Ming descendants in the early nineteenth century. Through these initiatives, the descendants asserted a new version of Ming loyalism that not only potentially undermined the claims of the Chosŏn court/literati to be the inheritors of Ming culture but strengthened the symbolic significance of the Ming loyalist families. This study illuminates this implicit tension and disjuncture between the positions of the two parties, which is significant for understanding developments, rather than seeing the Ming loyalists’ activities as an outcome of ongoing cooperative interactions between the Chosŏn court and the Ming families nourished during the eighteenth century.

朝鮮 後期 明 遺民 우대책과 濟南 王氏의 관직진출

한승현 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2019 한국문화 Vol.0 No.86

This paper analyzes the bureaucratic advancement of the Chenam Wang, a Ming descent group which had migrated to Chosŏn from China after the fall of the Ming. The group belonged to the “middle people” (chungin) class in Chosŏn society while a few other Ming descent groups with more prestigious family backgrounds boasted membership in aristocracy (yangban). As Chosŏn monarchs promoted Ming loyalism during the eighteenth century in an effort to consolidate royal power and to elevate the status of Chosŏn as the legitimate inheritor of the Chinese civilization, they actively recruited members of the Ming descent groups into the military officialdom. This paper examines closely the bureaucratic vicissitude of the Chenam Wang from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century, using the bureaucratic success of the Chenam Wang as a barometer of the degree to which monarchs’ efforts to promote Ming loyalism were made. This study demonstrates that the members of the Chenam Wang made significant progress in their bureaucratic advancement during the eighteenth century due to active royal sponsorship of their careers. A number of the Chenam Wang members acquired high-level offices during this period, such as the second rank, albeit largely honorary, positions. During the same period, Chosŏn monarchs appointed the members of a few other Ming descent groups with more prestigious pedigree to offices reserved for the aristocracy, trying to elevate them to yangban class. Although the royal patronage toward the Chenam Wang differed in degree from that toward these yangban Ming families, the bureaucratic success of the Chenam Wang during the eighteenth century was still remarkable. Their official fortune, however, experienced a downturn from the early- to mid-nineteenth century as a series of weak monarchs ascended the throne and their patronage of the Ming descent groups substantially diminished. The number of the Chenam Wang members who obtained bureaucratic or military offices increased during this period as their members consistently occupied the offices of Taebodan Guard and Chinese Brigade created in 1790 and monopolized by some Ming descent groups including the Chenam Wang. These posts, however, were relatively insignificant offices, and, for many of the members, the only posts they assumed. Some managed to move higher in the bureaucracy, but hardly above the offices at the middle level. It was during the reign of King Kojong in the late nineteenth century that the careers of the Chenam Wang suddenly flourished again, as the ruler re-emphasized Ming loyalism in an age of accelerated foreign and domestic crises. Some members attained powerful military offices at the rank of third and even above. The Chenam Wang even produced a civil examination graduate in this period who acquired the degree by receiving the royal favor of “directly advancing to the palace examination” during a literary test for the Ming loyalist ritual attendees.

명청(明淸) 교체기 한족 지식인의 명사(明史) 서술로서의 시화(詩話) 연구 —주이준(朱彝尊)의 《정지거시화(靜志居詩話)》를 중심으로

김하늬 한국중국어문학회 2020 中國文學 Vol.105 No.-

This study set out to focus on Jingzhiju Shihua(靜志居詩話) by Zhu Yizun in early Qing Dynasty. The purpose of the study is to analyze shihua(詩話, poetry talks) during Ming published by a Hanzu intellectual at the Ming-Qing transition in the aspect of "description of the history of Ming Dynasty" by a Hanzu intellectual. Jingzhiju Shihua is a collection of poetry talks from Mingshizong(明詩綜), an anthology of poems written during Ming and published by Zhu Yizun. In this book, Zhu Yizun not only tried to preserve the cultural heritage of Ming by including various poems, but also wanted to promote figures of Ming broadly by recording as many authors as possible. Furthermore, he corrected false historical statements based on diverse ground materials and attempted to keep the order of Zhonghua(中華) right by recording and criticizing even works from neighboring Chinese character-based cultural zones under the influence of China. It is estimated that Zhu Yizun as a Hanzu intellectual that decided to give up his resistance against Qing Dynasty chose and discussed "poetry," the symbol of traditional Hanzu culture, to keep his cultural pride and fulfill his last duty as a subject of the ruined dynasty. Instead of creating "poetry" himself and expressing his tragic emotions as a subject of a ruined state, he decided to collect and preserve "poems" due to the supervision of the Qing Dynasty and self-censorship as a way of fulfilling his duty as a subject of a ruined nation. Jingzhiju Shihua completed in this way is an outcome of him looking back on history as a subject of a ruined nation, reflecting his will to reflect on and reminisce about the times through literature. 본 연구는 명청(明淸) 교체기 명대 시에 대한 시화(詩話), 그 가운데서도 주이준(朱彝尊)의 《정지거시화(靜志居詩話)》를 한족 지식인의 ‘명대 역사 서술’이라는 측면에서 분석하고자 한다. 전통 중국 사회에서 시는 ‘한족 문화의 상징’이었고 역사를 기록하는 수단이었다. 주이준이 과도기적 시기에 하필 전대인 명대의 시를 모은 대규모 선집과 시화를 집필한 것은 ‘시’라는 문학적 방식으로 스스로 뼈아픈 망국의 역사인 명사(明史)를 서술한 것으로, 망국의 역사를 보존해야 한다는 사관(史官)으로서의 의지가 작용한 것이라 볼 수 있다. 청 왕조에 대한 저항을 포기하게 된 한족 지식인으로서, 주이준은 한족 전통 문화의 상징인 ‘시’를 택하여 그것에 대해 논함으로써 문화적 자존심만은 지키고, 유민으로서의 마지막 의무를 다하고자 한 것으로 추측된다. 다만 왕조의 감시와 자기 검열로 인하여, ‘시’를 직접 창작하여 유민으로서의 비극적 감정을 표현하기보다는 ‘시’를 수집하고 보존함으로써 우회적으로 유민의 의무를 다 한 것이다.

明末淸初 江南 어느 여성의 삶

김원희(Kim, Won Hee),이종무(Lee, Jong Mu) 한국중어중문학회 2015 中語中文學 Vol.60 No.-

Shang Jing-Lan(1605-1676) is one of the most famous and important female writers in the Ming-Qing Transition. This article is mainly focussed on Shang Jing-Lan’s life course in husband’s diary and Ming loyalty in her poetry. Shang Jing-Lan received the good home education since childhood and married the famous litterateur Qi Piao-Chia(1602-1645). This couple lived in south of Yangtze River. During the late Ming Dynasty, this happy couple lived an extremely affluent life in fertile land. In the Qi’s diary we can understand Shang Jing-Lan share with Qi Piao-Chia’s official career and garden life. Qi’s garden was actually broadly applied in Ming literati garden. In her widowed times, Shang Jing-Lan expressed her Ming-Qing female loyalty in her poetry. Shang Jing-Lan presented the traditional viewing angle about Ming-Qing Transition. this article investigates Shang Jing-Lan’s poetry, focus on the Ming-Qing female loyalist emotion.

정체성이라는 전략: 조선후기 대명유민의 경우를 중심으로

유불란 서울대학교 통일평화연구원 2022 통일과 평화 Vol.14 No.2

In Korea, socio-political interactions have been complex among national policies, migrant groups, and the society itself since the Japanese invasions of Korea and the Ming-Qing transition period. Particularly, the Ming Loyalist Émigrés issue revealed the intricacies of socio-political integration in two ways. On a high-level, the issue included the entanglement of cultural assimilation and differentiation, preferential policies in the political scene and social discrimination in real life. On an individual level, the Émigrés claimed to be a true successor of the Ming dynasty by the family establishment. Ultimately, “we” is not a fixed entity created by the official immigration policies. “We” rather actively engage in political struggles over social approval and recognition among political groups in society. In this paper, I examine the implications of immigrant integration by analyzing the between-group competition strategies of the nine righteous literati’s descendants over the other Chinese Émigrés and families in power of Joseon. 임진전쟁 및 명·청 교체기 이래, 심지어 오늘에 이르기까지 이 땅에서의 국가정책과이주민 집단들, 그리고 조선·한국 사회 간의 정치적인, 그리고 사회적인 상호작용은 지극히 복잡한 양상을 노정해 왔다. 그리고 이와 관련해 대명유민 문제는 그러한 정치-사회적인 통합이 그저 일방적으로 진행되지 않았음을 드러내 보여준다. 즉, 한 편에는 융화와 차별화가, 정치적인 우대와 실제 삶 속에서의 차별이 있었고, 또 다른 한편에는 자신들이야말로 대명의리의 진정한 계승자임을 내세우려는 대명유민들 나름의 문벌구축 시도가 있었던 것이다. 결국 ‘우리’라 하는 것은 단순히 공식적인 통합정책에 의해 만들어지는 어떤 고정된 실체가 아니었다. ‘우리’란, 오히려 사회 내 제반세력들 사이의 적극적인 인정투쟁의 결과 비로소 쟁취되는 일종의 사회적인 승인 상태였던 것이다. 이에 본고에서는, 구의사 후예들의 여타 황조인 그룹에 대한, 그리고 조선쪽에 대한 대명의리의 가문으로서의 문벌 경쟁 전략을 분석해 봄으로써, 사회통합에서 ‘통합’이 갖는 실제 함의에대해 고찰해 보고자 한다.

傳奇 《秣陵春》 속 玩物의 상징성 — 于闐玉杯를 중심으로

박양화 한국중국어문학회 2022 中國文學 Vol.110 No.-

This study is to examines the change in the jade cup appreciation of the main character in play Moling chun. The protagonist's jade cup is a valuable antique made of beautiful jade and an object of a fallen dynasty Southern Tang Emperor used. Therefore, appreciation may vary depending on the focus of appreciation of the object. How the protagonist recognized the jade cup of a fallen dynasty discourse on connoisseurship provides interesting perspectives on loyalists' mentality. At first, the protagonist recognized the jade cup as an object of the fallen dynasty. The jade cup became a venue for historical memory and reflection. When you have to choose between jade cup and his father's calligraphy books, the protagonist recognized the jade cup as a rare antique. He recognized that calligraphy books were more appropriate for literati to collect than jade cup, exchanged calligraphy books and jade cup. The play Moling chun shows the process by which loyalists liquidate loyalists' mentality through the change in appreciation and perception of the protagonist's jade cup symbolizing the fallen dynasty. This Shows the determination and process by which Wu Weiye, who had been in conflict between Ming and Qing, liquidate loyalists' mentality. 본 논문은 《말릉춘》에 등장하는 여러 완물 중 옥잔에 대한 주인공의 감상 초점과 태도 변화를 살펴보고 그 의미를 고찰하고자 했다. 주인공 서적의 옥잔은 美玉으로 만들어진 진귀한 골동품이자 구왕조의 황제가 사용했던 구왕조의 유물이다. 때문에 감상자의 감상 초점에 따라 그 가치가 달리 평가되고 감상자에게 다른 감흥을 불러일으켰다. 처음에 서적의 옥잔 감상은 그것이 구왕조의 유산이라는 것에 맞춰져 있었다. 그는 옥잔으로 상징되는 구왕조의 유산을 지키기 위해 출사를 포기한 문인으로서의 무력함을 견디며 남경에서 유민의 삶을 살았다. 옥잔과 아버지의 친필 서첩 중 하나를 선택해야 하는 상황에 이르렀을 때, 서적은 옥잔을 진귀한 골동품으로만 인식했다. 이에 서생의 소장품으로 더욱 적합한 서첩을 얻기 위해 옥잔을 정리했다. 이처럼 오위업은 《말릉춘》에서 구왕조를 상징하는 옥잔에 대한 서적의 감상 초점과 태도 변화를 통해 유민이 유민생활을 정리하게 되는 일련의 과정을 보여줬다. 이는 신ㆍ구 왕조의 갈림길에서 유민생활을 정리하기로 결심한 오위업이 그러한 결정을 내리기까지 겪었던 내적 갈등과 심리 변화 과정을 서적에 기탁해 표현한 것이다.

유아지경의 관점으로 바라본 팔대산인 작품연구

박한샘 한국동양예술학회 2023 동양예술 Vol.59 No.-

Bada Shanren is a representative Ming loyalist painter (遺民畫家) who expressed his resentment and indignation at the fall of the Ming Dynasty in his works of art in the midst of social, cultural and political chaos of the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty. ‘Yijing’ (意境) is a concept that began to emerge in the process of breaking away from the conventional approach to art in terms of social efficacy and enhancing it as a means of elevating the spirit of an individual. As the implication of ‘yijing’ deepened, artists emphasized that the subject and the object should be able to unite in the state of ‘xujing’ (虛靜), and they set the main goal of art to attain the essential value of existence by reaching a transcendental state. Therefore, it has become important for artists to express their realization of what is called a fundamental principle such as the ‘Tao’ (道) through artistic forms rather than representing the joys and sorrows of life felt by the aesthetic subject. This can be understood less by explicitly exhibiting one’s emotions, than in the state of ‘WuWoZhiJing’ (無我之境), where the subject and the object are united and transcend the subject. However, the expansion of the role of the individual self due to the philosophical background of the Ming and Qing Dynasties made it possible to achieve ‘YouWoZhiJing’ (有我之境), which explicitly exposes the subjectivity of the artist. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Yangmingism (陽明學), which claimed that “the principle of all things in the universe is already inherent in the human mind” (心卽理), provided a philosophical background to actively reveal the aesthetic subject by opening the way for emphasizing the individuality of an artist. Against this background, the artist was able to actively express various emotions inherent in his heart. Through art, Bada Shanren expressed his resentment at the fall of the Ming Dynasty and indignation over those who defected from the dynasty. The diminutive and bizarre shapes of flowers, fish, birds, and grass, which are the main subject-matters of his works, overtly represent emotions by identifying the artist himself with the objects from the perspective of ‘YouWoZhiJing’. The brushstrokes and the use of ink in his paintings also show his attempts to fully capture the trembling of the heart and private emotions. As a Ming loyalist painter, he had to face a violent reality. He expressed resentment, indignation, and hostility by aligning himself with the objects in his works, and then choosing an artistic style that explicitly exposes the aesthetic subject from the perspective of ‘YouWoZhiJing’. This can be regarded as a model that reminds us once again that the source of creation lies in the artist in a society where ideas and rules limit distinctive individuality.

19세기 전반기 明 遺民의 정체성과 구별짓기

韓承賢(Han Seunghyun) 역사교육연구회 2018 역사교육 Vol.146 No.-

Among the people who followed Prince Pongnim from Shenyang to Chosŏn in 1645 were some Chinese Ming loyalists later known as “nine righteous literati” (kuŭisa). Through a close reading of the literary collections of Wang Tŏgil and Tŏkku, descendants of Wang Yiwen, a member of kuŭisa, this article examines their efforts for distinction in the nineteenth century by focusing on their criticisms on Chosŏn’s cultural practices. Through the efforts, they redefined themselves as true inheritors of Chinese civilization. Wang Tŏkku problematized certain elements in Chosŏn literati’s ancestor worship, which he claimed should have followed the norms set by the Ming government but instead adhered to Zhu Xi’s Family Rituals. He criticized Chosŏn’s various cultural practices, such as prioritizing “tomb rites” over “seasonal rites,” appellations of women, and female headdress, as deviating from the ritual orthodoxy of China. The use of Yongli reign title instead of Chongzhen one was another way of distinguishing themselves. Through a more liberal interpretation of Yongli emperor’s calendar transmitted to Chosŏn by shipwrecked Chinese refugees in 1667, they believed the 1667 incident represented an event tantamount to the bestowal of Yongli’s imperial calendar to Chosŏn.

≪만역야획편(萬曆野獲編)≫ 번역(飜譯) 및 주석(註釋)(2)

채수민,송정화,이승신 고려대학교 중국학연구소 2017 中國學論叢 Vol.55 No.-

Wanli Yehuo Bian, written by Shen, Defu (1578-1642), is one of the most important source recording about the Ming Dynasty. Shen describes various aspects of Ming society, such as politics, institutions, culture and even conspicuous phenomena in the fashion of an essay, biji(筆記). This paper represents a part of translation of Wanli Yehuo Bian into Korean with full annotation. The entire volume of Wanli Yehuo Bian is constituted of 34 books. The Chronicles of Emperors, records of the reign-by-reign of emperors, shows up in the first two books. 109 articles listed in the two books illustrate how the Ming Empire was structured and what had happened around the individual emperors throughout the Ming Dynasty. This paper selects the first six articles in a row: Declaring Accession to the Throne; Fengxiandian(奉先殿), Palatial Shrine for the Ancestry; Emperor`s Temples in the Capital; Enshrine Loyalists with Their Emperor; Xiaozilu(孝子錄), A Guide to the Devoted Sons; Imperial Anthology.

망국(亡國)과 사물 ―팔대산인(八大山人) 화조화(花鳥畵) 작품 개설

이주현 ( Lee Juhyun ) 한국중국어문학회 2021 中國文學 Vol.106 No.-

In Bada Shanren's artworks, it is hard to find a harmonious and united world that has traditionally been built in Chinese literati painting. The flowers, trees, fish, and birds in his paintings look shabby and lonely and have negative feelings such as anger and sadness. These objects reflect his despair as a descendant of the Ming in the Ming and Qing transition period. In his poems, the images symbolizing the Ming appear repeatedly, such as bright and round moon, yellow and red colour. At the same time, there are some situations that one cannot achieve something even though one tries to. Moreover, the fish that symbolize the loyalists of the Ming are watching the world outside the water with their upward eyes. The gaze with anger was toward the turncoats who became the servants of the Qing Dynasty. The view also shows the paradox of a fish hidden or trapped in the water, contrary to the desire to be majestic in the outside world. In the world of Bada, birds that are generally free to move with their wings are not much different from fish in the water. The solitary bird feels lonely and misses its mate, and the two birds are at odds. The broken love, separation, and sadness of losing one's mate in his poems depicting birds were the images of the people who lost their own country. Ultimately, their weak and shabby appearances were the self-images of Bada Shanren who has no hope to regain his mother country anymore.