의례의 논리로 재구성한 고려시대의 왕권 -김아네스, 『고려의 국가제사와 왕실의례』 (경인문화사, 2019)-

김보광 ( Kim Bo-kwang ) 한국중세사학회 2022 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.69

This article is a critique of Agnes Kim’s book, which examines the structure of justification of royal authority or state power in the Goryeo Dynasty through Confucian-centered rituals. I would like to point out some significances from the author’s research results. First, the author reproduced the political authority of the king, that is, the royal authority as a process of visualizing it through a consistent logic. Second, some concepts that were used a lot by researchers but had somewhat vague meanings were clearly explained. For example, the meaning of rites to heaven, and the explanation of the royal hierarchy through appointment ceremonies. Third, the author reconstructed the process of the coronation ceremony that was not clearly revealed. It logically explains the series of processes from the will of the former king to the enthronement and amnesty. I raised several questions about the above research results. First, this book does not contain information on funerals for the royal family, including the king. Second, the author does not mention the way and space of the king’s political actions. Therefore, I think that the structure or process by which the state power acquires legitimacy through rituals has become ambiguous.

고려-몽골 관계의 전개와 다루가치의 置廢過程

김보광(Kim, Bo?kwang) 호서사학회 2015 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.76

「『拙藁千百』 譯註」(7) : 권1「金文正公墓誌」의 분석을 중심으로

이진한(Lee, Jin-Han),김보광(Kim, Bo-Kwang),김규록(Kim, Kyu-Rok) 고려사학회 2014 한국사학보 Vol.- No.55

『졸고천백』은 2권으로 된 최해의 문집이다. 최해는 주로 고려에서 활동하다가 정치적으로 소외되어 크게 현달하지 못하고 40세 정도에 은퇴하였다. 그는 대신 이제현, 이곡, 최문도 등 당대 최고의 문인과 교유하였다. 이 논문에서는 『졸고천백』중 권1의 15번째 글인「김문정공의 묘지」라는 글의 특징을 살피고, 번역 및 주석의 작업을 하였다. 이 글은 고려후기의 인물인 김태현을 위한 묘지명이다. 1261년에 태어난 김태현은 1276년(충렬왕 2)에 과거 급제한 이래 1330년에 사망할때까지 거의 대부분의 시기를 관원으로 활동하였다. 이 시기에 고려는 충렬왕과 충선왕의 重祚, 충선왕의 활동 및 토번 유배, 입성책동 등 굵직굵직한 정치적 사건을 겪었다. 이러한 정치상황에 따라 그는 관직 경력 상의 부침을 겪었는데, 「김태현묘지명」에서 주목되는 몇 가지를 정리하면 아래와 같다. 1) 아버지인 김수에 대한 기록이 주목된다. 삼별초가 제주도로 들어가려 할 때 제주로 파견되어 이를 막으려다 전사하였다는 내용이 실려 있다. 2) 김태현이 1280년에 충렬왕이 직접 선발한 시험에 합격하여, ‘전시문생’이라 불리면서 충렬왕의 측근으로 활동했다. 3) 그래서 충선왕이 1298년에 즉위하였을 때 그가 면직되었다는 사실 등 여타 기록에서 찾을 수 없는 경력을 이 묘지명을 통해서 확인할 수 있었다. Cholgo Ch"onbaek is a two-volume anthology of Choi Hae. He mostly worked in Goryeo, then later became politically isolated and made an early retirement at around 40 without significant achievements. This study examined the characteristics of ‘the epitaph for Kim Tae-hyun,’ the 15th entry in the book, and translated and annotated the original text. Mr. Kim was born in 1261, passed the state examination in 1276, and served as a government official most of his life until his death in 1330. This was a politically turmoil period that saw the enthronement, dethronement, as well as reinstatement of King Chungryeol and King Chungseon, the exile of King Chungseon to the present-day Tibet (Tobun at the time), the Mongol intervention in the Goryeo territory. Amid these political unrest, Mr. Kim’s career fluctuated as well. Some of the events are recorded in the work, which cannot be found elsewhere: 1) His father Su Kim is mentioned, who was dispatched to Jeju Island and killed there while trying to keep Sambyeolcho(a special capital defense unit) from entering the island. 2) Mr. Kim passed a state test directly overseen by King Chungryeol in 1280, and worked as a close aide to the king with a title Jeonsi-munsaeng(king"s students). 3) He lost his post when King Chungseon was enthroned in 1298. 4) The record shows that in the early 1300s, the Yuan dynasty operated 11 stations between Gaepyung and Gamsukseong.

고려 목종대 정치세력과 정국동향

김보광(Kim, Bo-kwang) 한국역사연구회 2014 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.91

Although Mokjong(穆宗), the seventh king of Goryeo, was on the throne for 12 years from 998 to 1009, he is not that well known to us because his actions were eclipsed by those of his mother, the empress dowager Cheonchu(千秋太后), and king Hyeonjong(顯宗 1009∼1031), who later took over his reign. Mokjong was enthroned at the age of 18, and began his governance under the influence of his mother Cheonchu. Her lover Kim Chi-yang rapidly emerged as an important political figure. In this study, it is attempted to escape from the previous trends of study which generally focused their attention upon Cheonchu, instead of other figures including Mokjong. There were multiple political factions in action under his rule. Yu Haeng-gan and Yu Chung-jeong, labelled as cronies(‘chongsin[寵臣]’ or ‘chongae[寵愛]’), courted lady Han who perpetrated frauds under the name of being the one with the king"s love. Han In-gyeong and Kim Nak were related to her and were also close to the king, even to the extent of being called as favorites. There was also a group of civil officials that included Jo Ji-rin and high-level ministers who had exerted influence since the rule of king Seongjong. In other words, the era was not dominated by a small number of political figures led by Cheonchu or Kim Chi-yang. During the first half of his reign, the political situation was stable with a balance of power reached between the king, empress dowager Cheonchu, and state officials from the days of Seongjong. In particular, empress dowager Cheonchu"s regency provided Mokjong with authority that stabilized the political arena. It can be said that Mokjong and Cheonchu pursued the establishment of regal power through "coexistence." Under the conditions, Kim Chi-yang was able to grow politically. However, Mokjong"s remarks regarding the establishment of a military camp in 1002 shows that as time passing by, tension between Mokjong and Kim Chi-yang were rising. As a son was born from empress dowager Cheonchu and Kim Chi-yang in 1003, conflicts between Mokjong and Kim Chi-yang, who was attempting to gain power, were only deepened. Moreover, the bribery case of Han In-gyeong and Kim Nak (1007) which ousted Han In-gyeong weakened Mokjong"s position and forced him conduct politics with only a small number of people who were close to him. Under the circumstances, as Kim Chi-yang"s plot to have his son take over the reign became obvious, Mokjong seriously battled Cheonchu, which led to a coup (1009). In the end, the political upheaval ruined both the king and Cheonchu.

고려시대 대신(大臣)의 사망과 국가적 예우(禮遇)

김보광 ( Kim Bo-kwang ) 한국중세사학회 2021 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.65

How does the state respond to the death of a high-ranking official during the Goryeo Dynasty? The purpose of this article is to clarify this point. The deaths of high-ranking officials were a political issue in that the state took care and action on the deaths of senior officials. Goryeo basically provided measures such as grant a posthumous epithet, posthumously confer a official title, offer a king’s condolence, attend a funeral, send condolence gift, supervise a funeral and so on to those who were called ‘Daesin’. Above all, the funeral of the official was so important that the king expressed his sorrow himself and stopped the court assembly for one or three days. The case shows that the category of ‘Daesin’ is not simply a high-ranking official, but a repute, and benefits at state-level given to the high-ranking officials in the Goryeo Dynasty.

고려 인종의 즉위와 ‘御正殿·聽政’ 사이 정치적 시차와 그 해소 과정

김보광(Kim, Bo-kwang) 고려사학회 2022 한국사학보 Vol.- No.89

이 글의 목적은 예종의 뒤를 이은 인종이 즉위하고 나서 정무를 개시하게 되는 정치적 시차를 의례와 정치적 맥락을 묶어 정치적 프로토콜로 설명하고자 하는 데에 있다. 예종이 1122년 4월 8일에 훙서하면서 태자이던 인종이 즉위하였다. 그리고 4월 28일을 시작으로 인종에게 ‘정전에 납시어 정사를 볼 것(御正殿·聽政)’을 요청하는 표문이 세 번 이어졌고 인종은 세 번째 요청을 받고서야 윤허하는 교서를 내렸다. 신하들은 以日易月의 원리에 따라 인종이 免喪되었음을 주장하면서 이제 왕이 정전으로 나아가 정사를 돌볼 것(御正殿·聽政)을 반복적으로 요청하였다. 반면에 인종은 이일역월의 원리가 人情을 제대로 담아내지 못함을 지적하면서 자신은 3년상을 지속하겠다는 의사를 밝히면서 거부하였다. 최종적으로는 仁政이 효의 실천이라고 하는 신하의 논리를 인종이 수용하면서 일단락되었다. 표문과 교서 도합 6편의 문서는 정항, 홍관, 이봉원, 김부일이라는 네 명의 문한관이 작성하였으며, 정항과 김부일은 표문과 교서 각 1편씩 두 편을 작성하였다. 이는 표문과 교서라는 문서로 君臣이 자기 주장만을 전개한 것이 아니라 君臣 사이에 정형화된 정치적 대화였음을 암시한다. 또 예종의 장례가 4월 26일에 끝났는데 4월 28일자로 첫 번째 표문이 작성되었다는 점은, 예종의 장례가 免喪의 계기였음을 의미한다. 이는 신왕 즉위와 정무 개시 사이의 정치적 시차를 해소하려는 움직임이었다. 나아가 신하들의 요청을 수용한 인종은 5월 18일에 정전인 건덕전에 거둥하여 재신에 대한 인사를 시행하였다. 이로써 ‘정전에 납시어 정사를 볼 것(御正殿·聽政)’을 요청한 상황이 실제로 구현되었다. 결국 일련의 표문과 교서로 오간 정치적 대화는 인종이 政事를 돌보는 진정한 君王으로 전화되는 계기를 마련하기 위해 군신 사이의 ‘합의된 정치적 상징 행위’이자 ‘정치적 퍼포먼스’였다. 이를 통해 君臣과 朝野는 신왕을 왕으로서의 권위를 인정하고 그 정무 행위의 정당성을 만들어 내었다. This article reconstructs the transition from the funeral process of King Injong who succeeded King Yejong to the process of starting government affairs. Through this, the process of obtaining legitimacy in political actions was investigated by the new king Injong. King Yejong died on April 8, 1122, and his son, Injong, took the throne. And on April 26, Yejongs funeral ended. Then, from April 28, The king Injong and officials had a political dialogue through documents for about 20 days. At this time, despite being enthroned as a new king, there was a political time lag because he did not perform government affairs because of the mourning period. Through this conversation, the king Injong accepts the request of the officials to fulfill his role as king. In this way, the king was confirmed as the legitimate successor and the new king. This dialogue was a political dialogue and protocol agreed between the Goryeo ruling class.

[고려] 고려시대 연구의 2019~2020년 동향과 특징 - 양적 분석과 키워드를 중심으로 -

김보광(KIM, Bo-kwang) 역사학회 2021 역사학보 Vol.- No.251

The purpose of this article is to understand the research trends of the Goryeo Dynasty by examining academic papers published in 2019 and 2020. For this purpose, 428 papers are collected through 〈Korean History Research Compendium〉 and their analysis are focused on keywords. The analysis results can be roughly divided into the following four trends. First, there are many studies on national rituals. Second, studies on Buddhism, including the Tripitaka Koreana, have been conducted in various aspects. Third, many studies have been produced on the relationship between Goryeo and Mongol empire. In addition, various discussions were held in detail, such as the Goryeo-Mongol War, diplomatic relations between the two countries, and efforts to secure king’s power under the influence of the Mongol empire. Fourth, a lot of research has been done on the space of the palace and the capital, Gaegyeong.

고려의 對蒙 대응 논리와 ‘大國이미지’

김보광(Kim, Bo-Kwang) 고려사학회 2015 한국사학보 Vol.- No.61

이 글은 1차 고려-몽골 전쟁을 전후한 1231, 1232년의 상황이 고려-몽골 관계에서 중요한 계기가 되었다는 판단 아래, 이 시기 고려의 대응논리를 자세히 다뤄보고자 했다. 우선 이 기간 동안 모두 19통의 몽골 문서가 고려로 왔음을 유추해내었다. 약 1년 정도의 시간 동안 19통의 문서를 몽골이 보냈다는 사실에서 몽골이 고려에 매우 적극적으로 외교 활동을 벌였음을 알 수 있다. 구체적으로 몽골은 국왕의 친조나 강화도로부터의 출륙을 항복의 증거로 요구하였고, 공물만이 아니라 인질, 군대의 동원, 호구 점검 등도 요구하였다. 여기에는 1231년의 1차 고려-몽골 전쟁과 뒤이은 고려의 강화도로의 천도가 큰 영향을 주었다. 전쟁 이후 몽골은 고려를 실질적인 복속국으로 보고 일방적인 의무를 이행할 것을 본격적으로 요구하기 시작하였던 것이다. 같은 시기에 고려가 몽골로 보낸 외교 문서도 18통에 달한다. 몽골의 요구 사항 변화로 유발된 고려-몽골 관계로 인해 표문 작성 방식도 기존과는 달리 화려한 수사보다는 직설적이고 안건이 나열되는 방식으로 변하였다. 이 과정에서 고려는 몽골의 요구를 거부하거나 이행하지 않을 수 있도록 몽골을 설득하기 위해 보다 적극적으로 대응 논리를 개발해냈다. 그것은 거란이나 여진과 전쟁을 회피하기 위해 사용하던 사대외교의 방식을 적극적으로 사용하는 것이었다. 고려는 스스로를 몽골에 사대하는 존재로 낮추면서 몽골을 ‘대국’으로 대접하였다. 그리고 몽골에 대국으로서의 역할을 주지시키면서 ‘소국’인 고려의 입장을 이해하여야 한다는 당위를 강조하였다. 즉 몽골에 ‘大國이미지’를 입히려 한 것이다. 하지만 중국적 문화전통과는 전혀 다른 배경을 지닌 몽골에게 그러한 논리는 수용되지 않았다. 사대외교의 방식 안에서 움직인 고려의 이 시기 대응 방식은 한계가 분명했지만, 이 같은 노력으로 인해 기존과 같은 외교적 대응 방식으로는 몽골을 설득할 수 없음을 확인하였다. 이제 고려는 몽골에 대응할 새로운 틀을 요구받게 되었다. In this paper, I studied on the Koryo’s responses to the Mongol empire, based on the perception that political circumstances in 1231-32 around the time of the First Mongol invasion largely determined the relationship between the two countries. First of all, I derived that a total of 19 Mongol documents were sent to Koryo royal court during this period. The fact that Mongol sent 19 documents in approximately one year suggests that the Mongol was very active in its diplomatic activities with Koryo. Specifically, the Mongol demanded that Koryo king pays a visit to Mongol emperor or that Koryo return to the inland from Ganghwa Island, as a proof of surrender, and also demanded hostages, military aid, and household survey in addition to offering of tributes. This was largely affected by the First Mongol invasion in 1231 and the Koryo royal court’s move to Ganghwa Island that ensued. After the war, the Mongol treated Koryo as its subordinate country in effect, and began to relentlessly demand Koryo to fulfill its obligations as such. During this period, Koryo sent 18 diplomatic documents to the Mongol. Due to Mongol’s changing demands on Koryo and subsequent relationship between the two countries, the style of the documents also changed from an eloquent, rhetorical writing to a listing of agendas in a straightforward manner. The Koryo royal court developed logics and responses to persuade the Mongol, so that it could refuse and not implement demands of the Mongol. The strategy was an active use of submissive diplomacy that was used before to avoid a war with the Khitan or the Jurchen. Koryo lowered itself as a country that obeyed the Mongol, and treated the Mongol as a ‘Great State’ with confucian moral and very understanding. In the documents, it reminded the Mongol of its role as a great state, and emphasized that the Mongol should be considerate to the position of Koryo as a smaller country. That is, Koryo tried to persuade the Mongol with a lofty image of a ‘Great State.’ However, the Mongol was not the least persuaded by such logic, as it was a country with wholly different cultural backgrounds from China. Koryo’s political responses to the Mongol during this time within the framework of submissive diplomacy clearly had limitations, and yet, due to these efforts, it became clear that the old way of diplomatic response was ineffective in persuading the Mongol. Now Koryo had to develop a new diplomatic framework to respond to Mongol.

특집논문 : 이인로(李仁老)의 사례로 본 고려전기 직한림원(直翰林院)의 운영과 역할

김보광 ( Bo Kwang Kim ) 고려대학교 역사연구소(구 역사학연구회) 2014 사총 Vol.83 No.-

이 글은 直翰林院이라는 관직의 운영 양상을 李仁老란 인물의 사례를 중심으로 살펴서 王言의 작성 과정, 직한림원의 운영 과정 등을 이해하고자 한 것이다. 그 주요 내용을 정리하면 다음과 같다. 1152년에 태어난 이인로는 1180년에 과거에 급제한 후 1183년에 直史館을 거쳐 1185~1197년에 걸쳐 직한림원을 지냈다. 1213년 이후에 知制誥에 임명되고 1220년에 69세로 세상을 떠났다. 翰林院은 元鳳省에서 유래한 것으로, 광종과 성종대의 정비를 거쳐 현종대에 한림원으로 개편되었다. 한림원의 관직은 관례적으로 겸직으로 운영되다가 예종대에 한림원의 거의 모든 관직들이 本品行頭로 지정되면서 겸직으로 운영되는 것으로 법제화되었다. 그러나 직한림원만은 전임직과 겸직 모두 운영되었다. 직한림원은 기본적으로 결원이 발생하였을 때 후임을 선발하였다. 이때 과거급제자 중 성품이나 행동거지가 방정한 이들이 후보가 되었다. 또 가계나 신분상으로도 하자가 있으면 임명될 수 없었다. 게다가 평소의 성격이나 행동거지도 살펴서 결격 사유가 없어야 했다. 직한림원의 후보자를 아무나 추천할 수 있던 것도 아니어서, ‘儒官宰相’ 등으로 표현되는 과거에 합격한 경력이 있는 재상들이 추천권을 행사하였다. 이인로의 경우, 당시 수상이던 문극겸이 추천하였다. 그리고 직한림원은 결원이 발생하면 후임을 뽑는 방식으로 운영되었기 때문에, 선발된 이들은 자신들이 누구의 후임이라는 인식을 갖게 되었다. 마지막으로 직한림원의 역할을 추적하여 밝혔다. 직한림원은 국가나 왕실 차원의 불교나 도교 행사를 위한 기도문인 疏, 靑詞 등을 작성하거나 국왕의 장례식을 위한 挽詞를 짓는 등 예식문의 작성이 기본 역할이었다. 또 왕명의 작성 주체인 지제고들이 제 때 작성하도록 일정을 챙기는 등의 ‘관리’를 하는 역할도 담당하였다. 그리고 지제고가 작성한 내용을 형식에 맞게 베껴 정식 문서로 만드는 역할도 하였다. 이러한 점들 때문에 직한림원이 국왕의 문서를 짓는다고 하는 수사적 표현이 나타나기도 했다. This article examined the operation aspects of auxiliary of Hanlin Academy(直翰林院; kor. jikhanrimwon), a civil post at Hanlin Academy, centered on a case of Yi Il-Lo(李仁老), thereby intending to understand the process of documentation of the king’s orders and operation process of auxiliary of Hanlin Academy. The main content is summarized as follows. Yi Il-Lo, who was born in 1152, passed a state examination in 1180 and worked as auxiliary of Hanlin Academy from 1185 to 1197 via auxiliary of Historiography Institute(直史官; kor. jiksakwan) in 1183. He was appointed to drafter of royal pronouncements(知制誥; kor. jijego) in 1213 and died at an age of 69 in 1220. Hanlin Academy originated from Department of Royal Pronouncement(元鳳省; kor. Wonbongseong) and was organized into Hanlin Academy under the reign of King Hyeonjong through modification by King Gwangjong and King Seongjong. All posts in Hanlin Academy were concurrent posts. Under the reign of King Yejong, all posts excluding auxiliary of Hanlin Academy were made into concurrent posts under the law. However, auxiliary of Hanlin Academy was operated as both a concurrent post and a full time job. Basically, the successor to auxiliary of Hanlin Academy was selected when there was a vacancy. The candidates were those who had good character and behaviors among successful examinees. If one had some defect in one’s family or status, one was not appointed. In addition, one’s character and behaviors should have no grounds for disqualifications. Not anybody was able to recommend a candidate for auxiliary of Hanlin Academy. Grand Councilors who had passed a state examination, expressed as confucian scholars, exerted their right of recommendation. Yi Il-Lo was recommended by Mun, Geuk-gyeom, a prime-minister at the time. Because the successor to auxiliary of Hanlin Academy was chosen when there was a vacancy, those who were selected thought that they were somebody’s successor. Lastly, I``ve also assumed the roles of auxiliary of Hanlin Academy at the end of this article. The basic role of auxiliary of Hanlin Academy was to write a ceremony writing, for example, writing a prayer for Buddhist or Taoist ceremony or a composition for the funeral of the king. auxiliary of Hanlin Academy was also in charge of “management”, for instance, managing a schedule for drafter of royal pronouncements, who prepared the king’s orders, so that they were able to write them at a proper timing. auxiliary of Hanlin Academy also played the role of copying what drafter of royal pronouncements had written in an appropriate form into a formal document. For such reasons, a rhetorical expression that auxiliary of Hanlin Academy drafts king’s pronouncements.

고려전기 魚袋의 개념과 운영방식에 대한 검토

김보광(Kim, Bo-kwang) 한국사연구회 2015 한국사연구 Vol.- No.169