빠알리어 시제에 관한 『깟짜야나 문법』과『목갈라나 문법』의 규칙 분석

김서리 인도철학회 2017 印度哲學 Vol.0 No.51

The purpose of the present paper is to analyse the grammatical rules for Kaccāyana-Vyākaraṇa(KV) and Moggallāna-Vyākaraṇa(MV) with reference to Pāli Tense. KV presents 10 rules related to tense in a chapter called ‘ākhyāta-kappa’ and MV does 6 rules in a chapter called ‘chaṭṭho kaṇḍo’. As a result of the comparative analysis of those rules, the following points are observed: Firstly, with regard to the arrangement of the related rules, KV deals with the tense suffix separately from the definition of tense in different rules, while MV deals with the tense suffix together with the definition of tense in one rule. Despite the different arrangement of the rules, both KV and MV classify Pāli tense into five kinds, viz., three past tenses, one present tense, and one future tense. Secondly, in respect of the technical term for a tense, both KV and MV use significant word conveying the meaning of a particular tense. The terms that those grammars use are as follows. For the general terms of past tense, KV and MV use atīta and bhūta, respectively. For the terms of three types of past tense, ajjapabhuti atīta(past tense beginning with today) in KV corresponds to bhūta(general past tense) in MV; hiyyoppabhuti atīta(past tense before yesterday) in KV corresponds to anajjatana bhūta(past tense except today) in MV; and apaccakkha atīta(past tense beyond speakers’ perception) in KV corresponds to parokkha bhūtānajjatana(past tense beyond speakers’ perception except today) in MV. KV and MV use the term paccuppanna and vattamāna to denote the present tense, respectively. And KV and MV use the term anāgata and bhavissati to denote the future tense, respectively. Thirdly, both KV and MV use the technical term of the tense suffix for the sake of concise and efficient expression. The terms that those two grammars use are as follows. KV provides the terms ajjatanī, hiyyattanī, parokkhā, vattamānā, and bhavissantī for the group of tense suffixes, implying the meaning of each tense. Unlike KV, MV provides the terms ī-ādayo, ā-ādayo, a-ādayo, tyādayo, ssatyādayo for the group of tense suffixes, by joining the initial suffix of the particular suffix group to the functional word ‘ādi(beginning with, and so forth).’ Fourthly, with respect to sphere of application for the tense suffix, KV presents the application of those, limiting the related tense only, while MV presents wider application of those such as the contrariety or change of time(kālabyattayo) and the use in a sentence that is irrelevant to tense. 본 연구는 대표적인 빠알리어 전통문법서인 『깟짜야나 문법(KV)』과 『목갈라나 문법(MV)』이 동사의 시제를 어떻게 다루는지 알아보기 위해 관련된 문법규칙을 분석한 것이다. 분석결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, KV와 MV 모두 빠알리어 시제를 3종의 과거, 현재, 미래 이렇게 총 다섯 가지로 동일하게 구분하지만, 전개방식에 있어서 KV는 각 시제의 정의와 해당 시제 어미를 다른 규칙으로 분리해서 다루고, MV는 한 규칙으로 묶어 제시한다. 둘째, 두 문법서가 제시하는 시제의 용어가 그 시제를 정의하는 핵심단어라는 점은 동일하지만, 서로 다른 용어를 사용한다. 과거시제의 일반적인 용어로 KV는 atīta를, MV는 bhūta를 사용하고, 세 가지 유형으로서의 과거시제 용어도 같지 않다. 현재시제의 용어로 KV는 paccuppanna를, MV는 vattamāna를 사용한다. 미래시제의 용어로 KV는 anāgata를, MV는 bhavissati를 사용한다. 셋째, 두 문법서는 규칙의 간결성을 위해 시제 어미군의 용어를 사용하는데, KV가 ajjatanī, hiyyattanī, parokkhā, vattamānā, bhavissantī와 같이 그 시제를 의미하는 단어를 사용한다면, MV는 ī-ādayo, ā-ādayo, a-ādayo, tyādayo, ssatyādayo와 같이 시제 어미군의 첫 어미에 ‘ādi’를 결합한 실용적인 단어를 사용한다. 넷째, 시제 어미군의 활용범위에 대해 KV는 해당 시제만 제시하는 반면, MV는 화자의 의지에 따라 시제 간에 시제 어미들을 바꾸어 사용하는 ‘시제불일치(kālabyattayo)’의 경우와 시제와 관계없는 문장 내 활용의 경우도 제시한다.

국어의 시제 형태소 체계와 그 기능 변이

홍종선 한글학회 2008 한글 Vol.- No.282

In Contemporary Korean, when tense morphemes are reiterated in their use, the later changes its function to express mood or aspect. This function changing could be attributed to the properties that the grammatical categories of tense, mood and aspect are related to one another and furthermore that the formation of tense morphemes took place in correlation with mood or aspect. Thus, this kind of function changing is also found in Middle Korean as well as in other periods. In Contemporary Korean, the tense morphemes expressing past, present and future, i.e. ‘-eoss’, ‘-neun’ and ‘-gess’, change their functions to express perfective aspect, confirmative mood and presumptive mood respectively. These changes reflect the fact that the morphemes came to gain new functions which are closely related to their original functions. In addition to the morphemes previously mentioned, the past tense morpheme ‘-deo’, the future tense ‘-ri’ and the morphemes ‘-neu’ and ‘-ni’ also underwent function changing to express retrospective mood, the mood of intention or presumption and principle mood. In Middle Korean, the past tense morpheme ‘-ni’ functions as the one expressing principle mood after another tense morpheme, and the past tense morpheme ‘-deo’ and the future tense ‘-ri’ have additional functions to express retrospective mood and the mood of intention and presumption. Based on the claim that the tense developed from the mood in Korean, it can be suggested that the fact reflects the historical stage in which the functional differentiation of the morphemes were not completed. In Middle Korean in which the tense was not formulated as a complete grammatical category, past events were mainly expressed with the aorist mood(infinitive form) in written language. Thus, it is fairly implausible to argue that the aorist mood itself is to express past tense. 현대국어에서 시제 형태소가 중첩될 때 후행하는 형태소는 서법이나 동작상으로 기능 변이를 한다. 이들 세 문법 범주가 서로 관련성을 갖는 속성이 있기도 하지만, 시제 형태소들이 형성 단계에서 서법이나 동작상과의 관계성 속에서 이루어진 때문으로 보인다. 따라서 이러한 기능 변이는 중세국어 등 다른 시기에서도 나타난다. 현대국어에서 과거 시제 ‘-었-’은 완료상으로, 현재 시제 ‘-는-’은 확인법 ‘-느-’로, 미래 시제 ‘-겠-’은 추측법으로 기능을 바꾸는데, 이러한 기능 변이는, 공시적으로는 그가 원래 가진 시제에서의 기능과 관련을 갖는 기능으로 확대되는 것이며, 통시적으로는 그들이 가졌던 본래의 서법과 동작상적인 역사성에 기인하는 것으로 해석된다. 이들 외에 회상법의 의미를 갖는 과거 시제 ‘-더-’와, 의도나 추측의 의미를 갖는 미래 시제 ‘-리-’가 있고, 원칙법의 ‘-니-’와 ‘-느니-’가 있다. 중세국어에서 과거 시제를 담당하는 ‘-니-’는 다른 시제 형태소 뒤에선 원칙법으로 기능하였고, 과거 시제 ‘-더-’는 회상법을 나타내고, 미래 시제 ‘-리-’는 추측이나 의지의 서법 기능을 겸하였다. 국어의 시제가 서법으로부터 발달해 온 것으로 보는 견해에 따르면, 이들 사이에 완전한 분화가 아직 덜 이루어진 상태로 해석될 수 있다. 이처럼 아직 시제가 문법 범주로 뚜렷함이 덜하였던 중세국어에서는 부정법으로 과거의 일을 표현하는 방식이 주로 문헌어에 있었던 것으로 보인다. 따라서 부정법 자체가 과거 시제를 나타낸다는 체계를 세우기에는 여러 가지 무리함이 있다.

A Fresh Look at the Tense-aspect System of Turkish

Gerd Jendraschek 서울대학교 언어교육원 2011 語學硏究 Vol.47 No.2

Turkish is one of the best described languages of the world. One should therefore expect a large consensus with regards to the way Turkish grammar is described. However, once we compare different grammatical descriptions of Turkish, we find an astonishing variation of analyses. One domain whose description is particularly unsatisfactory is the tense-aspect system. The paper will show that forms like okuyor, okur, okuyacak, and okumuş are participles marked for aspect, but not for tense. Failure to recognize the zero-exponence of present tense has lead to the erroneous analysis of aspectual morphemes as tense markers. Comparison with the tense marking on non-verbal predicates shows however that present tense is neither marked on the noun/adjective/adverbial/participle, nor part of the meaning of the subject cross-reference markers. It is marked by the absence of the other member of the tense paradigm, past tense. In addition to an inadequate semantic description of the progressive aspect suffix -iyor, many grammars present a diachronically motivated form -(I)yor, which requires elaborate morphophonological rules to produce the synchronically correct verb forms. This segmentation should be revised by acknowledging the morphological inclusion of the original linking vowel into the suffix, which allows for a much more elegant description. Finally, the paper will draw attention to the crosslinguistic confusion caused by the term ‘aorist’ and advocates the term ‘dispositive aspect’ instead. In the same vein, ‘prospective aspect’ is a more adequate term for participles in -ecek than ‘future tense’. An interesting consequence of the present analysis is that Turkish has a simple past marked by a cumulative morpheme -ti which fills both the aspectual and the temporal slot of the verb form, but no simple present, as all present tense forms require overt aspectual marking. Tense is thus an inflectional category of the predicate, be it verbal or non-verbal, while aspect is an inflectional category of verbs. The paper is relevant for linguists interested in Turkish in general as well as readers interested in tense and aspect, and may contribute to improvements in Turkish language education by providing a more consistent account of the morphological structure of temporal and aspectual forms and their use.

한국어 접속문의 시제 해석

김민영 한국어학회 2009 한국어학 Vol.43 No.-

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate principles and structure of tense in Korean conjunct sentence, and thereby formulate the ways of interpreting tense. This study suggests that tense in conjunct sentence should be interpreted by allowing for characteristics of conjunct sentence, such as inter-context conjunction and a conjunction between preceding and follow-up clause, not a simple inter-sentence conjunction. Based on Anchoring Conditions for Tense(Enc¸, 1987), Chapter 5 attempted a logical approach to interpreting tense of Korean conjunct sentences. As a result, the tense interpretation could fall broadly into independent interpretation of preceding and follow-up clause tense, and interpretation of preceding clause tense depending on follow-up one. The latter case was divided again into preceding clause with and without tense. Then, the tense interpretation could be diagrammatized into three syntactic structures. Based on these syntactic structures, the matters on tense interpretation of Korean conjunct sentences were discussed overall in association with concept of absolute and relative tense addressed as above.

미래시를 나타내는 Will의 분석

박용준 신영어영문학회 2014 신영어영문학 Vol.58 No.-

Some grammarians, Jespersen and Palmer, insist that English does not have a future tense and also English has 2-tense system because WILL is not a future tense as past tense and present tense are. They do not want to categorize WILL as tense but as a modal verb which is used to express modalities in English. But Wekker and Declerck do not agree with this but they want to show the evidences which reveal WILL is a future tense in English. Actually, WILL is used as a future tense by English speakers as they recognize WILL functions as a future tense. It means that actual usage of WILL also has a future tense even if it is categorized as a modal verb. In this paper, I would like to tell that WILL has the meaning of future tense which is different from the modality that WILL expresses and that WILL functions as a future tense as past tense and present tense. So, WILL is an important modal verb but it is also a future tense because there are some usages that show us that the WILL is used to express future event as a future tense. And as we see, some usages will prove that WILL plays a role as a future tense in English.

Absolute/Relative Tense and Identification of Tense in Korean Predicative Clause

Eun Ji Lee 현대문법학회 2001 현대문법연구 Vol.24 No.-

In this paper, we examine the tense property of Korean predicative clauses. We show that subordinate clauses, regardless of whether they are nonfinite or finite, derive relative tense interpretation, whereas main clauses, which are all finite, derive absolute tense interpretation. For the case of nonfinite (subordinate) clauses, these clauses are similar to the nonfinite clauses in English. In this case, given no overt tense markers, tense is unspecified and anaphoric, yielding relative tense interpretation. In the case of finite subordinate clauses, where one of (nu)n and e/ass is present, these markers however are not tense, that is, they do not function as tense, but something else (probably aspect). Hence, tense in this case is unspecified and anaphoric, deriving relative tense interpretation. Finally, in the case of main clauses, which are always finite, (nu)n and e/ass are tense markers and function as tense. So, tense is specified, deriving absolute tense interpretation.

미래시를 나타내는 Will의 분석

박용준(Park, Yong-June) 신영어영문학회 2014 신영어영문학 Vol.57 No.-

Some grammarians, Jespersen and Palmer, insist that English does not have a future tense and also English has 2-tense system because WILL is not a future tense as past tense and present tense are. They do not want to categorize WILL as tense but as a modal verb which is used to express modalities in English. But Wekker and Declerck do not agree with this but they want to show the evidences which reveal WILL is a future tense in English. Actually, WILL is used as a future tense by English speakers as they recognize WILL functions as a future tense. It means that actual usage of WILL also has a future tense even if it is categorized as a modal verb. In this paper, I would like to tell that WILL has the meaning of future tense which is different from the modality that WILL expresses and that WILL functions as a future tense as past tense and present tense. So, WILL is an important modal verb but it is also a future tense because there are some usages that show us that the WILL is used to express future event as a future tense. And as we see, some usages will prove that WILL plays a role as a future tense in English.

영어의 Tense와 현대적 관점

신계성 啓明專門大學 産業開發硏究所 1999 啓明硏究論叢 Vol.17 No.1

영어의 시제(時制)는 행위와 그것의 완성 및 미완성적 시기를 지시하는데 사용되는 동사의 형태이다. 행위의 발생시점을 논하는 데에는 현재, 과거, 미래가 있지만 그것의 완성 및 미완성의 표시단계는 단순시제, 진행시제, 완료시제, 완료진행시제인 4단계의 표시를 두어서 (3×4=12) 12시제를 이때까지 학교문법에 도입하여 왔었다. 그러나 나날이 복잡하게 변하는 시대의 조류에 대응하기 위하여 언어의 경제법칙 중 하나로서 최근 Chomsky(1995)의 최소이론을 도입하여 시제를 현재, 과거 2시제로 분류하고 미래시제는 modal로 진행과 완료시제는 aspect로 분류하는 것이 시대감각에 부응하는 것이다. The tense of a verb is the form used to denote the time of the action and its completeness or incompleteness. There are three times at which an action can take place, namely present, Past and future and in each of these, there are four stages of completeness and incompleteness. In school grammar, it can be divided into twelve parts. we call it twelve tense. (a)simple tense, (b)continuous tense, (c)perfect tense and (d)continuous perfect tense. Each one got present, Past, and future tense, therefore, four stages time three tense makes twelve tense. As a part of the economic law of languages, we can introduce Minimal-Programs by Chomsky(1995). It is smart idea to have an ideal view point of two-tense theory; present and past. and the others we must treat future as a modal and aspect as continuous and perfect tense.

人を主語にとる名詞述語文のテンス体系

장희주 중앙대학교 일본연구소 2018 日本 硏究 Vol.0 No.48

In order to investigate the tense system of predicate nominal sentences with a human-denoting subject, I collected relevant example sentences from conversational sentences in contemporary Japanese novels. I also divide the collected sentences into those denoting an individual subject and those denoting a generic subject. I further provide the three-way classification of sentences denoting individual subjects in terms of whether they may be concurrent with expressions of past tense. These classifications reveal the tense system of each type of sentence. Firstly, when a subject denotes an individual subject, a sentence describing a constant characteristic of the individual denoted uses a past tense form to express the inexistence of the individual. If the individual is existent, however, the use of past tense is disallowed, and only the non-past form is used. Secondly, a sentence describing a variable characteristic of the individual denoted may be concurrent with the past tense form and it also allows the use of temporal expressions for past tense. In connection with this, I also observe that the use of the past tense form expresses that the relevant characteristic is no longer existent (i.e. a change of the individual or the inexistence of the individual), while the use of the non-past tense form describes the present characteristics of the individual. Finally, a sentence denoting a temporal phenomenon is compatible with temporal expressions for past, and the use of the past tense form points to the pre-utterance time at which the event in question occurred, while the use of the non-past tense form describes the present event. On the other hand, in the case of generic subjects, most of the collected sentences describe judgments based on the speaker’s thoughts, and the non-past tense form tends to be used. For the groups which are currently inexistent, however, the use of the past tense form is licensed, which implicates that the groups in question are no longer existent

국어문법의 시제 범주와 ‘-었었-’ 시제의 문제

김찬곤 ( Kim Chan Gon ) 아시아문화학술원 2018 인문사회 21 Vol.9 No.3

국어문법학계에서 ‘-었었-’시제는 아직 뚜렷하게 정리되지 않았다.‘-었었-’을 보는 관점이 논자마다 다르고, 우리말 시제와 관련하여 가장 많이 논의되는 분야라 할 수 있다. 하지만 이런 학계의 논의와는 달리 이오덕, 이수열은 ‘-었었-’을 우리말 시제로 보지 않고 영어 과거완료시제에서 온 것으로 본다. 이 논문의 목적은 우리 국어문법의 범주 가운데 ‘시제 범주’의 문제를 논하고, 우리말시제 가운데서 ‘-었었-’ 시제의 문제를 살펴보는 데 있다. 국어문법 시제 범주와 관련하여, 한국인에게 시간은 물리적 시간 또는 절대 시간이라기보다는 주체와 관계 속에 있는 심리적 시간에 가깝기 때문에 절대 시간에 기반 한 영어 시제처럼 시점(時點)이 뚜렷하지 않다. 그래서 우리 국어문법 시제범주에서 자명하게 기준으로 삼는 발화시, 사건시, 경험시, 상대시제, 절대시제, 완료상, 동작상 같은 개념으로 우리말의 시제를 보는 것은 한계가 있을 수밖에 없고, 이런 개념으로 우리말 시제를 보는 것은 ‘전도’에 가깝다. 우리 국어문법에서 서양 문법 범주의 영향을 받은 것은 비단 시제 범주뿐만 아닐 것이다. 이것은 앞으로 면밀히 검토하고 연구하여 하나하나 바로잡아 나가야 할 것이다. The ‘-었었-’ tense in Korean grammar academic community is not clear yet. Each scholar has a different point to view it. And It is the most discussed field in relation to the Korean tense. But Contrary to these academic debates Lee Odeok, Lee Suyeol don't see it in the Korean tense. They see it as coming from the past perfect tense of English. The purpose of this study is to discuss problems of ‘tense category’ in Korean grammar category, tostudy the ‘-었었-’ tense of Korean tense. Time to the Koreans is neither physical time nor absolute time, but rather psychological time in relationships with the self. For that reason time in the Korean tense is not as clear as the English tense based on absolute time. So there is a limit to seeing the Korean tense in concepts such as the speech time, event time, experience time, relative tense, absolute tense, movement aspect, perfective aspect speaking for itself as criterion in the tense category of Korean grammar. And It is nearly to bereversed. Korean grammar category influenced by Western grammar category wouldn't be just tense category. It will have to be reviewed, studied and corrected one by one.