The Contribution of the Different Groups of Biblical Dead Sea Scrolls to Exegesis

E. Tov 한국신학정보연구원 2008 Canon&Culture Vol.2 No.1

Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Hebrew text of the Bible was known mainly from the medieval manuscripts of MT and the Samaritan Pentateuch(SP). Other sources are the medieval copies of the LXX, Peshitta, Targumin, and Vulgate. An inductive approach to the scrolls should start with the data that were available before the scrolls were found in 1947. If we were to start the analysis immediately with a description of the scrolls themselves, we would not be able to sense the impact of the immense revolution created by the new finds. Further, the human mind works from the known to the unknown by linking new data to data already known. We have to first analyze in detail MT, SP, and the LXX, since otherwise we cannot point out the closeness between a scroll and, for example, the LXX. We have no alternative but to proceed in this way, not only because the LXX was known before the scrolls, but also because the LXX is so much better known than a few very fragmentary scrolls. In this analysis, we will start with the scrolls themselves. When proceeding in this way we constantly think at two levels about the ancient and medieval sources. On the one hand, we compare the newly discovered ancient MT-like scrolls with the medieval MT, while on the other we know that these ancient scrolls were the forerunners of MT and that we actually need to compare the latter with the former. A graphic presentation of selected scrolls accompanies our background description. These samples take the medieval MT as our point of reference, not only because it is the best-known text, but also because this is the accepted procedure in textual criticism. Our procedure involves a merely didactic device, and does not necessarily involve the centrality of that version. A variant is any detail differing from MT. In our samples of scrolls, black denotes identity to MT, while red, blue, green, and pink denote different types of variation from MT. The main idea behind the presentation is the gradual moving away from black to multi-colored texts. It should be stressed that the indication of these colors is subjective although this subjective probably does not exceed 10 percent of the material. The purpose of these sample is to indicate graphically the relation between texts. The typological presentation is the focus of this study and we do not suggest that the groups of texts developed in the way depicted here. Our main purpose is to elucidate the nature of the following groups. (1) Forerunners of the medieval MT found at Judean Dessert sites other than Qumran; (2) Proto-Masoretic Qumran scrolls; (3) Text differing from MT mainly in orthography and morphology; (4) Scrolls written in the paleo-Hebrew script; (5) “Pre-Samaritan” scrolls and the Samaritan Pentateuch; (6) Text close to the presumed Hebrew source of the LXX; (7) “Independent”(non-aligned) sources. Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Hebrew text of the Bible was known mainly from the medieval manuscripts of MT and the Samaritan Pentateuch(SP). Other sources are the medieval copies of the LXX, Peshitta, Targumin, and Vulgate. An inductive approach to the scrolls should start with the data that were available before the scrolls were found in 1947. If we were to start the analysis immediately with a description of the scrolls themselves, we would not be able to sense the impact of the immense revolution created by the new finds. Further, the human mind works from the known to the unknown by linking new data to data already known. We have to first analyze in detail MT, SP, and the LXX, since otherwise we cannot point out the closeness between a scroll and, for example, the LXX. We have no alternative but to proceed in this way, not only because the LXX was known before the scrolls, but also because the LXX is so much better known than a few very fragmentary scrolls. In this analysis, we will start with the scrolls themselves. When proceeding in this way we constantly think at two levels about the ancient and medieval sources. On the one hand, we compare the newly discovered ancient MT-like scrolls with the medieval MT, while on the other we know that these ancient scrolls were the forerunners of MT and that we actually need to compare the latter with the former. A graphic presentation of selected scrolls accompanies our background description. These samples take the medieval MT as our point of reference, not only because it is the best-known text, but also because this is the accepted procedure in textual criticism. Our procedure involves a merely didactic device, and does not necessarily involve the centrality of that version. A variant is any detail differing from MT. In our samples of scrolls, black denotes identity to MT, while red, blue, green, and pink denote different types of variation from MT. The main idea behind the presentation is the gradual moving away from black to multi-colored texts. It should be stressed that the indication of these colors is subjective although this subjective probably does not exceed 10 percent of the material. The purpose of these sample is to indicate graphically the relation between texts. The typological presentation is the focus of this study and we do not suggest that the groups of texts developed in the way depicted here. Our main purpose is to elucidate the nature of the following groups. (1) Forerunners of the medieval MT found at Judean Dessert sites other than Qumran; (2) Proto-Masoretic Qumran scrolls; (3) Text differing from MT mainly in orthography and morphology; (4) Scrolls written in the paleo-Hebrew script; (5) “Pre-Samaritan” scrolls and the Samaritan Pentateuch; (6) Text close to the presumed Hebrew source of the LXX; (7) “Independent”(non-aligned) sources.

천하태평(天下太平)의 이상과 현실

장진성(Chang Chinsung) 한국미술사교육학회 2008 美術史學 Vol.22 No.-

총 12개의 수권(手卷)들로 구성되어 있는 〈강희제남순도권康熙帝南巡圖卷〉은 1689년에 이루어진 강희제(재위 1662-1722)의 제2차 남순(南巡)을 그림으로 기록한 작품이다. 총 길이 197.60미터에 달하는 〈강희제남순도권〉은 강희제의 71일 간의 여행을 산수 배경 속에서 묘사한 거질(巨帙)의 궁정기록화이다. 〈강희 제남순도권〉은 표면적으로는 강희제의 강남 지방 여행 및 순시 장면을 거대한 산수 배경 속에 묘사한 궁정기록화이다. 그러나 〈강희제남순도권〉은 황제의 여행 기록을 넘어 천하태평의 이상을 실현하고자 했던 강희제의 정치적 열망과 포부가 담겨져 있는 그림이다. 〈강희제남순도권〉 제1권 제첨(題簽)에 따르면 강희제의 남순 목적은 황하 치수(治水) 상황 시찰, 백성들의 풍속 관찰, 지방관원들의 행정 점검이었다. 그러나 강희제의 남순은 이러한 표면적인 목적을 넘어 청제국의 정치적 안정과 경제적 번영을 바탕으로 태평성대의 시대를 열고자 했던 강희제의 미래에 대한 비전과 관련되어 있었다. 〈강희제남순도권〉의 정치적 성격과 관련하여 가장 주목되는 기록은 1692년에 발표한 강희제의 조유(詔諭)로 삼번(三藩)의 난, 황하 치수(治水), 대운하(大運河)를 통한 원활한 물자 교류를 국가 운영의 3가지 중대사로 규정하고 있다. 즉 강희제는 삼번의 난이라는 대규모 내전을 통해 조직화된 군사력의 중요성을 인식하게 되었으며 황하의 범람이 초래하는 막대한 자연 재해의 심각성과 치수 사업을 통한 근본적인 홍수 예방의 필요성을 절감하였다. 아울러 강희제는 대운하의 효율적인 관리를 통해국가 재정의 핵심이 되는 강남 지역으로부터 유입되는 세곡(稅穀)의 원활한 운송이 제국 경영의 초석이 된다는 것을 확신하게 되었다. 이러한 3대 과제는 〈강희제남순도권〉를 관통하는 핵심적인 주제로 기능하게 되었다. 제1권과 12권에 보이는 대규모 군단(軍團)를 이루고 있는 만주팔기의 모습, 제10권에 보이는 마상사술(馬上射術) 장면, 제11권에 보이는 남경의 연자기(燕子磯)를 떠나 진강(鎭江)으로 이동하는 대규모 군선(軍船)들의 모습은 삼번의 난을 통해 얻게 된 교훈인 군사력의 중요성에 대한 강희제의 성찰과 관련된다. 한편 제4권에서 강희제는 황하 치수를 통해 천재지변을 사전에 예방하고 백성들의 삶을 풍요롭게 만드는 자애롭고 인자한 유교적 천자로 자신을 표방하고 있다. 한편 이러한 황하 치수 작업은 대운하의 안정적 운용과 직결되어 있었는데 제7권은 대운하를 통해 소주에 도착한 강희제의 모습을 보여주고 있다. 소주는 강남의 경제적?문화적 중심지로 대운하를 통한 강희제의 소주 방문 장면은 국가 경제의 핵심이 되는 소주 지역의 경제적 번성과 물자의 원활한 유통 모습을 통해 ‘성세자생(盛世滋生),’ 즉 태평한 시절을 맞아 경제적 번영을 구가하는 상황이 도래했음을 천명하고 있다. 그러나 〈강희제남순도권〉에 표현되어 있는 태평성대의 이미지와는 달리 이 그림이 제작되고 있던 당시 청조는 ‘숙황(熟荒)’이라고 하는 장기적인 경제 불황을 겪고 있었다. 숙황은 풍년이 들어 곡식은 넘치는데 구매력이 없어 곡물가격의 폭락으로 이어지는 기이한 경제 현상으로 1690년대까지 지속되었다. 이러한 숙황 현상을 타개하고 농업과 잠업(蠶業)의 육성을 통해 경제적 안정을 도모하고자 했던 강희제의 의지는 1696년에 초병정(焦秉貞, 1680-1720년경 활약)이 황명(皇命)을 받고 제작한 〈어제경직도(御製耕織圖)〉를 통해 살펴볼 수 있다. 예찬(倪瓚, 1306-1374)의 〈계정산색도(溪亭山色圖)〉(1365년, 대만고궁박물원 소장)에 보이는 강희제의 화압(花押)인 ‘태평(太平)’은 내전과 경제 불황을 극복하고 천하태평의 이상을 실천하려고 했던 그의 정치적 비전을 극명하게 보여주고 있다. In 1691, Wang Hui (1632-1717), a celebrated painter from Yushan, was summoned to the imperial court in Beijing to produce the Nanxun tu, a set of twelve scrolls commemorating the emperor Kangxi’s (r. 1662-1722) Southern Tour of 1689. The project had no true precedents: the twelve scrolls represented the longest and most comprehensive landscape panorama ever attempted in China. The main purpose of the paintings was to create a pictorial record of the emperor’s journey to the south and to enhance the image of his rulership. Wang Hui put his painting skills, his artistic ambitions, his knowledge about the history of painting, and his views of current politics into this large-scale court painting project. Wang Hui put his painting skills, his artistic ambitions, his knowledge about the history of painting, and his views of current politics into this large-scale court painting project, a pictorial narrative designed to enhance the image of Kangxi’s magnificent rule. The Nanxun tu was intended to celebrate the age of peace and prosperity after the pacification of the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories and the consolidation of the empire. The scrolls show images of political stability and economic affluence set against a background of monumental landscapes. The emperor and his entourage, escorted by imperial armies, are marching through various regions of the empire, starting from Beijing and going on to thriving cities in the south such as Suzhou and Nanjing. All the figures and landscapes depicted in the scrolls were carefully chosen to represent the age of the “grand peace (taiping)” that the emperor had brought to the land after tumultuous years of war. The political purpose for producing the comprehensive maps of the Yellow River and the Grand Canal and the Nanxun tu can be further detailed through Kangxi’s statement of 1692. This statement epitomized the political struggles and crises that the emperor had experienced since the demise of the Oboi regency in 1669. No other threat was more serious to the foundation of the Qing dynasty than the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories in the period from 1673-1681. The effective control of large-scale annual floods caused by the Yellow River had been an essential part of imperial rulership since ancient times. The river conservancy was once again a testimony to Kangxi’s rule of China. The securing of annual tribute grain from the south along the Yangtze River and the Grand Canal to the capital was the economic foundation for sustaining Manchu rule. Kangxi’s statement of the most important matters of state not only remarked on the long years of his struggle to establish imperial rule, but also revealed his political prospect for the consolidation of the empire. The statement was a proclamation of his supreme rule over the state affairs. The layered meanings of the statement are of great significance in understanding the motivations and intentions of the Nanxun tu project. When Kangxi announced his statement about imperial rule, the Nanxun tu scrolls had just begun to be painted. The political narrative crafted in the Nanxun tu resonated with Kangxi’s vision of imperial rule manifested in the statement. In many respects, the Nanxun tu scrolls are visual embodiments of Kangxi’s statement. The political message of the “three matters of great importance”in state affairs is implied in each scroll of the Nanxun tu. Manchu military prowess and the concern for the Yellow River conservancy and the Grand Canal grain tribute system are recurring themes and motifs that run through the scrolls. In this regard, the Nanxun tu was the result of Wang Hui’s pictorial responses to the political concerns that Kangxi wanted each scroll to make manifest. The Nanxu tu thus was not merely a pictorial document of the emperor’s journey to the south. The scrolls were layered with Kangxi’s political visions that were closely related to the enhancement of his rulership. Actively responding to Kangxi’s p

성전 문서(11QT)

박미섭(Park Mi-Sop) 한국중동학회 2005 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.26 No.1

  Since the Temple Scroll(= 11QT) was discovered in 1956 by Bedouins at the 11th cave, about 1 km to the north of Khirbet Qumran which is located north-west of the Dead Sea, it has attracted great attention of many scholars. This article introduces the process from the discovery of the scroll to its publication and deals with the author, date and purpose of the scroll. It also investigates linguistic traits of the scroll and sources used in it and finally analyses the whole text comparing the various regulations mentioned in the scroll with those known from the Bible and other scrolls from the Dead Sea.<BR>  The Temple Scroll is a composition which rewrites and interprets regulations based mainly on the Pentateuch using the language of the Pentateuch. And the regulations are regarding construction of the temple and its yards, festivals and sacrifices, purification, kings, daily life of common people, etc.<BR>  The Temple Scroll has some common features with other scrolls from Qumran as follows:<BR>  (1) It has the same dialectic elements of Hebrew as in 1QS, 4QM, etc. written by the community of Qumran.<BR>  (2) It follows the solar calendar mentioned in some scrolls.<BR>  (3) There are similar features with 11QNJ ar, CD, 4QMMT and the Book of Jubilees in respect of contents.<BR>  It seems, therefore, that the Temple Scroll had close relation with the Qumran community and it was composed by the time when the community was built or after it was built (in the 2nd cent. B.C.).<BR>  As written in CD 6:11-12, 17-20, it is assumed that the community didn"t take part in the sacrifices of the priests in Jerusalem, as they used a different calendar from that of the community. It is also probable that the people of the early period of the community, who had witnessed the temple of Jerusalem profaned by gentiles and the priesthood stolen by non-Zadokites, had an expectation of construction of a new temple. In the light of these aspects, we may say that the Temple Scroll expresses the plan of the Qumran community to recover the holy life with the temple in its center and the plan was based on the religious faith of the community. We can learn from the Temple Scroll not only a way of interpretation of the Bible in the ancient Jewish society, but also the vision of the Qumran community regarding the new temple and sacrifices in it and its understanding of the regulations to be kept by the people of God.

Who Bears the Blame for Sin?: Comparing the Interpretations of Adam's Fall in the Book of Ben Sira and the Dead Sea Scrolls

안창선 한국신학정보연구원 2023 Canon&Culture Vol.17 No.2

The story of Adam’s Fall and the question of responsibility for sin have been subjects of significant interest in ancient Jewish and early Christian traditions. This study aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the interpretations of Adam's Fall in the writings of Ben Sira and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Through an examination of the selected passages, this research examines how these ancient Jewish texts depict Adam’s role in the origin of sin. In this study, I highlight Ben Sira’s emphasis on human responsibility as a free agent and his positive portrayal of Adam as the first human. In contrast, the Dead Sea Scrolls focus on humanity's disobedience, depicting Adam in a negative light. By closely analyzing these differing viewpoints, this article reveals Ben Sira's distinct understanding of Adam's Fall and its importance when compared to the backdrop of the Dead Sea Scrolls community. Furthermore, this research analyzes three specific scrolls - Words of the Luminaries, 4Q Paraphrase of Genesis, and Exodus and Sapiential Work A – and offers insights into how these texts shaped their understanding of Adam’s Fall. Finally, this study briefly present later Jewish and Christian interpretations after the destruction of the Jerusalem temple to demonstrate how the concept of the Fall has evolved over time. By means of this comparative examination, the present article asserts the lack of uniformity and the intricate nature of interpretations concerning the Fall of Adam. This is achieved by displaying the varied perspectives on the attribution of sin within Jewish traditions.

쿰란 사본과 신약성경의 인간 이해

송창현(Song, Changhyun) 수원가톨릭대학교 이성과신앙연구소 2010 이성과 신앙 Vol.43 No.-

이 연구의 목적은 신약성경에 나타난 인간학적 용어의 기원과 배경을 탐구하는 것이다. 신약성경의 인간 이해는 다음과 같이 구약성경에 근거를 둔다. 첫째, 인간은 하느님에 의해 창조되었다. 둘째, 인간은 하느님의 모상으로 창조되었다. 셋째, 인간은 다양한 관계 안에서 창조되었다. 넷째, 인간은 하느님에 의해 구원된다. 그러나 바오로의 “육”과 “영”의 대조와 “육”에 대한 부정적인 용법은 구약성경의 의미를 뛰어넘는다. 쿰란 사본의 발견 이전에, 학자들은 바오로의 용법을 그리스적 개념으로 설명하려고 시도하였다. 바우어의 튀빙엔 학파는 바오로의 사상과 용어를 헬레니즘이나 헬레니즘적 유다이즘으로 해석하려 하였다. 헬레니즘적 혼합주의의 설명은 종교사학파에 의해 주장되었다. 신약성경의 “육”과 “영” 이원론의 기원을 어떻게 설명할 것인가? 인간 이해의 문제에 관하여 쿰란 사본은 새로운 전망을 연다. 4QInstruction, 1QS(공동체 규칙서)와 1QHa(찬양 시편)은 “육”과 “영”의 용어를 사용하는 인간에 대한 이원론적 이해를 포함한다. 여기서 우리는 쿰란 사본과 바오로의 서간 사이의 유사성을 발견할 수 있었다. 쿰란 공동체와 바오로는 모두 “육”과 “영”의 대조와 “육”에 대한 부정적인 용법을 사용한다. 이 연구를 통하여 우리는 바오로의 서간이 쿰란 사본에서 증명되는 팔레스타인 유다 전승의 영향을 받았다는 사실을 지적할 수 있었다. 바오로 인간학의 핵심 요소인 “육”과 “영”의 대조는 바오로에 대한 제2차 성전 시대 지혜 전승의 영향의 실례로 설명될 수 있었다. 결국 우리는 쿰란 사본이 구약성경과 제2차 성전 유다이즘의 연구를 위해 중요할 뿐 아니라 신약성경과 초대 그리스도교 공동체의 이해를 위한 매우 중요한 실마리를 제공한다는 사실을 지적할 수 있다. The purpose of this study is to explore the origin and background of the anthropoligical terminology in the New Testament. Understanding the human being of the New Testament is grounded on the Old Testament, as follows. First, human beings were created by God. Second, human beings were created in God's image. Third, human beings were created in a variety of relationships. Fourth, human beings are saved by God. But the Pauline antithesis of “flesh” and “spirit” and his negative usage of “flesh” go beyond the range of meanings in th Old Testament. Prior to the discovery of the Qumran Scrolls, scholars have made an explanation of Pauline usage in terms of Greek ideas. The Tü̈bingen school of F. C. Bauer tried to interpret Pauline thought and terminolgy from Hellenism or Hellenistic Judaism. The explanation from Hellenistic syncretism was offered by adherents of the religio-historical school. How do we explain the origin of the “flesh” and “spirit” dualism in the New Testament? The Qumran Scrolls open a new perspective on understaning human being. 4QInstruction, 1QS(Rule of the Community) and 1QHa(Hodayot) include a dualistic understanding of humankind, using “flesh” and “spirit” terminology. In this point, we could find the similarity between the Qumran Scrolls and the Pauline epistles. The Qumranites and Paul both offer the antithesis of “flesh” and “spirit” and the negative usage of “flesh”. Through this study, we were able to point out the fact that the Pauline epistles were influenced by Palestinian Jewish traditions that are attested in the Qumran Scrolls. The antithesis between “flesh” and “spirit” that is a core element of Pauline anthropology could be explained as an example of the influence of the Wisdom tradition of Second Temple period on Paul. In consequence, we could indicate the fact that the Qumran Scrolls are not only important for studying the Old Testament and Second Temple Judaism, but also for providing invaluable clues to understanding the New Testament and early Christian community.

쿰란 고고학의 역사와 쟁점들

송창현 한국가톨릭신학학회 2015 가톨릭신학 Vol.0 No.27

이 논문의 목적은 쿰란 동굴과 키르벳 쿰란 유적지에 대한 고고학의 역사와 쟁점들을 고찰하는 것이다. 고고학자들은 사해 사본을 감정하고 쿰란에서 발견된 유물을 연구하는 데 있어 중요한 역할을 수행하였다. 1949년 이래 쿰란의 동굴들과 유적지는 요르단 문화재 관리국의 국장인 하딩과 예루살렘 성서ㆍ고고학 연구소의 소장인 드 보를 책임자로 하는 탐사에 의해 발굴되었다. 쿰란에 대하여 우리에게 알려진 것의 많은 부분은 드 보의 관점에 따른 것이다. 왜냐하면 드 보는 많은 사본의 출판을 조직하는 책임자였을 뿐 아니라 쿰란에 대한 중심적인 탐사가였기 때문이다. 사본의 동굴들이 발견되고 키르벳 쿰란을 발굴하는 과정에서 드 보의 에세네파 가설은 몇몇 반대에도 불구하고 일반적으로 받아들여졌다. 그러나 지난 20년 동안 반대 의견이 등장하여 드 보의 가설을 무효화하기를 시도하였다. 일군의 학자들에 따르면, 쿰란은 종교적 유적지가 아니었고 건물들은 요새(골브), 무역항(캔스대일과 크라운), 전원 별장(동셀과 동셀-부트), 영주 저택(허쉬펠트), 하나 혹은 그 이상의 용도(앵베르) 등과 같은 다양한 목적을 가지고 있었다는 것이다. 이 논문은 연구의 역사와 상황을 소개하고, 받아들여졌던 동일화가 극복되지 않았다는 것을 드러내려 노력하였다. 우리는 동굴들과 키르벳 쿰란의 유적지 사이에 연관성이 있었다는 것을 분명히 하였다. 비록 유적지에서 아무런 사본이 발견되지 않았지만, 드 보는 동굴에서 발견된 동일한 종류의 토기를 쿰란에서 동일시할 수 있었다. 동굴과 유적지에서 발견된 여러 원통형 항아리들은 사본 작업과 관련 있는 연관성을 제안한다. 이 논문은 쿰란의 발굴과 거기에서 무엇이 발견되었는지를 묘사하였다. 쿰란 건축의 가장 중요한 특징과 쿰란의 공동묘지를 포함해서 유적지, 동굴들, 사본들 사이의 가능한 관련성을 소개하였다. 쿰란을 사용하였던 그룹이 누구인지를 결정하기 위한 중요한 자료는 드 보가 발굴하여 발견한 공동묘지이다. 드 보는 중심 공동묘지에 대한 발굴과 고대 역사가들의 보고를 기초하여 쿰란 그룹은 독신이었다는 결론을 내렸다. 우리는 유적지와 건물들이 에세네파로 알려진 종교 운동에 의해 사용되었다고 결론 내릴 수 있다. 쿰란이 기원후 68년 로마 군대에 의해 파괴되기 이전에, 이 그룹은 또한 모든 혹은 대부분의 사본들을 동굴에 감추었다. 쿰란 공동묘지로부터 유골에 대한 연구는 쿰란 공동체가 남성에 의해 주도되었다는 학자들의 주장을 지지한다. 공동묘지와 건물들은 쿰란 공동체 구성원의 숫자가 150-200명이었다는 사실을 가리킨다. 이 연구를 통하여 우리는 사해 사본 연구를 위한 쿰란 고고학의 중요성과 가치를 입증할 수 있었다. The purpose of this study is to explore the history and issues of the archaeology of Qumran caves and the site of Khirbet Qumran. Archaeologists have played a important role in identifying the Dead Sea Scrolls and in researching objects found at Qumran. Since 1949, the caves and the site of Qumran were excavated by an expedition headed by G. Harding, director of Jordanian Department of Antiquities, and R. de Vaux, director of École Biblique et Archéologique Française de Jérusalem. Much of what is known about Qumran has come to us through the eyes of Roland de Vaux. Because not only was de Vaux responsible for organizing the publishing of many of the scolls, but he was also the principal excavator of Qumran. In the course of the discoveries of the caves with scrolls and of the excavations of Khirbet Qumran, the Essene hypothesis of de Vaux became generally accepted despite some oppositions. But during the last two decades, a surge of contradictory opinions has attempted to dismiss the case. For some scholars, Qumran was never a religious site, and so the buildings had very different purposes as fortress(N. Golb), commercial entrepô̂t(L. Cansdale and A. Crown), villa rustica(R. Donceel and P. Donceel-Voû̂t), manor house(Y. Hirschfeld), one or more fuctions (J.-B. Humbert). This study has presented a history and a status quaestionis of researches and tries to show that the accepted identification has not yet been overthrown. We have made it quite clear that there is a connection between the caves and the settlement of Khirbet Qumran. Although no scrolls have been found at the site, de Vaux was able to identify at Qumran remains of the same kind pottery that had been found in the caves. The number of cylindrial jars from the caves and the settlement suggests a connection that is related to archival activities. The present study has described the excavation of Qumran and what was discovered there. It has also introduced the most important features of its architecture and possible relationships among the site, the caves, and the scrolls, including reference to the Qumran cemetery. An important source for determining what kind of group utilized Qumran is the cemetery, which de Vaux discovered in his excavations. De Vaux concluded that the Qumran group was celibate, based upon his excavation of the main Qumran cemetery and reports of ancient historians. We may conclude that the site and buildings were used by a religious movement known as the Essenes. This group also hid all or most of the scrolls in the caves, most likely before Qumran was destroyed by Roman troops in 68 C.E. From the cemetery of Qumran, the skeletal remains studied so far support the view of most scholars that Qumran was a community center for a predominantly male group. With respect to population estimates, the cemeteries and buildings indicate that the community at Qumran numbered between 150 and 200. Through this study, we were able to witness the significance and the value of the archaeology of Qumran for the research on the Dead Sea Scrolls.

What can the Dead Sea Scrolls teach us about the belief in the resurrection in Ancient Judaism?

Emile Puech 한국신학정보연구원 2008 Canon&Culture Vol.2 No.1

This lecture intends to consider the origin of the Biblical belief in resurrection with the help of the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is commonly supposed that this belief began with the persecutions of Antiochus IV and that Daniel 12 is the first biblical witness. The author believes that it began earlier in the reflection of the sages after the great trauma of the exile, and that there are indications of such a belief in other biblical and apocryphal books which are earlier than Daniel, as illustrated in some copies in the Qumran library. Some passages of the Dead Sea Scrolls witness to a clear belief in the afterlife and the resurrection of the just at the Last Judgment. But the resurrection is not a return to a better life on this earth. It is an awakening or entrance into an immortal life an a New Earth, in the presence of God and the company of the angels. Consequently, the passage of Hippolytus presenting this Essene belief is much more faithful than that of Flavius Josephus who ascribes to them a Greek Pythagorean belief.

文震亨의 長物志 중 ‘懸畵月令’과 明代 末期의 繪畵鑑賞

박은화 한국불교미술사학회 2017 강좌미술사 Vol.49 No.-

Wen Zhenheng(1585-1645), one of the most representative literati of the late Ming period, and a scholar, artist, and arbiter of taste, wrote the manual Zhangwuzhi(Treatise on Superfluous Things) to provide detailed information about the art of living and rules of style and taste for literati trying to aestheticize the details of daily living, and to maintain their position among China’s social elite class, when object became the agent for both the assertion of individuality and integration into the elite culture. Zhangwuzhi includes ‘Calendar for the Display of Scrolls’ that advises on the appropriate images for paintings to hang on major holidays and special occasions, which is hung for short duration and useful for charting the passage of the time around the year. It lists the precise circumstances and times of the year when certain types and subjects of painting suitable for the literati’s taste could elegantly be displayed, and reflects the concept of time manifested in Chinese visual and material culture. Wen Zhenheng provided a detailed calendar as to what images should be hung at what time of year, showing that as a renowned literati painter and connoisseur, he was not indifferent to subject matter of painting, and even in regard to the highly prestigious art form of painting, he was aware of traditional apotropaic, performative and decorative functions of picture making and painting appreciation. He also emphasized that when paintings were seen was as important as what they depicted. ‘Calendar for the Display of Scrolls’ also shows reasons for the popularity of certain themes of painting, and Wen’s reference to displaying Song and Yuan paintings on certain themes testifies that already by the Song, specific imagery were used for the special season and time, and in the mid-Ming period, the themes of paintings he mentioned became important items to collectors to amass in their collections. Therefore, it provides a good indication not only of the practice of hanging scrolls of different subjects to suit season and occasion, but also of the increasing demands on painting that facilitated the production of professional painters’ works and forgeries for the antique market. The choice of paintings to be displayed on a particular time or occasion depends largely on individual taste and preference. However, Wen’s list explains that certain rules and traditions of painting appreciation were adopted by the literati of refined taste, which influenced development of different styles and diverse subject matter of the late Ming painting with a proliferation of writings on collecting and connoisseurship. It also offers some insight into a little studied concept of time underlain Chinese painting and helps understand the meaning and social, cultural background of the extant Ming and Qing paintings more precisely. 文徵明(1470-1559)의 曾孫이며 대대로 학문과 예술로 명망이 높았던 집안 출신으로 명대 말기 강 남 지역의 문인 사회를 대표하는 인물의 하나인 文震亨(1585-1645)의 長物志는 衣, 食, 住, 行, 用, 出遊, 鑑賞 등을 망라해 당시 문인들이 지향하던 고상한 취미와 우아한 생활을 위한 지침서이자 당시문인계층의 심미의식과 문인문화를 반영하는 백과사전적인 저술이라고 할 수 있다. 長物志의 「書畵」편은 서화의 감상 및 소장과 관련된 다양한 내용을 수록하였으며 「書畵」 편에 수록된 ‘懸畵月令’은 때에 따라 걸어놓고 감상하는 그림의 畵題를 月別, 특정한 시기별로 제시한 것 으로 명대에 많이 출간된 문인들의 玩賞品과 감상 및 소장에 대한 閑事를 기록한 다른 저술에서는 찾아볼 수 없는 독특한 내용으로 연구자들의 주목을 받았지만 회화사의 관점에서 깊이 있는 연구는 이루어지지 않았다. 이 글에서는 ‘懸畵月令’의 내용을 정확하게 파악하여 중국 회화의 畵題와 회화감 상의 양상, 그리고 회화의 창작과 감상에 내재된 시간관념을 살펴보았다. 禮記의 「月令」 편에서 유래한 月令思想에 기반한 ‘懸畵月令’은 歲時에 의거해 진행되는 節令 활동과 관련되면서 점차 시간개념을 표현하는 전통이 된 그림의 종류를 매우 구체적으로 열거하였다. 특히 중요한 절기와 관련된 화제는 회화 감상에 그림의 주술적인 효용성이나 민속적인 요소가 포함되었고 장식적인 용도도 감안되었으며, 문인들의 회화감상이 문인화의 화제나 양식에 국한되지 않았음을 말해주어 주목된다. 또한 ‘懸畵月令’에 송,원대 작품이 거론된 것으로 보아 이미 송대부터 도석인물화나 풍속화, 산수화가 특정한 절기와 관련해 제작되거나 감상되었을 가능성이 대두된다. ‘懸畵月令’을 통해 문인화가들이 즐겨 그리고 감상한 화제도 특정한 계절이나 때를 위해 그려진 예가 많음을 확인할 수 있고, 절기에 따라 수요가 증가하는 鐘馗圖, 壽星圖와 같이 동일한 화제가 여 러 화가들에 의해 빈번하게 그려진 경우 화가의 독자적인 해석이나 양식을 반영하여 그림이 제작되고 소장가들은 자신의 안목과 취향에 따라 그림을 선택하여 감상함으로 당시 회화의 양식과 畵意의표현에 영향을 주었을 것으로 여겨진다. 이렇듯 ‘懸畵月令’은 사회적 지위와 문화적 배경을 바탕으로 형성된 영향력을 통해 화제와 회화 양식의 다양화에 기여함으로 명대 말기의 화단을 더욱 다채롭게 만든 문인들의 회화 소장이나 감상에 시간개념이 포함된 시대적 상황을 밝혀준다. 나아가 회화 제작 및 유통, 감상과 소장의 양상을 반영함으로 현존작품이 지니는 의미를 더욱 다각적이고 유기적으로 고찰하고 이해하는 근거가 되며 당시 회화의 성격과 특징을 비롯해 변화의 양상과 그 원인을 밝히는 데에도 도움을 주어 중국회화사연구에서 중요한 가치를 지닌 문헌자료라고 할 수 있다.

중국 거버넌스 아래 하서보권(河西寶卷)의 현대화와 활용

허윤정 중국어문학회 2024 中國語文學誌 Vol.- No.86

본 연구는 문화관리주의의 입장에서 중국의 무형문화유산 하서보권(河西寶卷)이 국가 거버넌스 아래에서 일어난 현대화의 과정과 그 활용 양상을 다루고 있다. 하서 지역 시골 마을의 민간의 신앙 텍스트였던 보권은 중앙정부의 정책, 지방정부의 행정, 시민단체의 실천으로 기존에 하서보권을 탄생시켰던 문화적 맥락에서 벗어나고, 도시민과 전문가로 구성된 시민단체에 의해 새로운 작품이 탄생한다. 또 지방 정부는 <보권인상(寶卷印象)>과 같은 대형 무대극을 관광상품을 만들어 내는 데 활용한다. 이와 같이 세 주체의 장기적이고 다양한 실천적 행위를 통해 하서보권은 농촌의 문화에서 위대한 중화의 문화로 변모하였고, 하서 사람들의 일상의 문화로 서서히 깊이 녹아들어 가고 있으며, 간쑤성을 대표하는 관광 산업의 대표 브랜드로 활용되고 있다. From the standpoint of cultural managementism, this study examined in detail how ‘Hexi precious scrolls’ is being changed and utilized in religious cultures such as intangible cultural heritage and security rights under various national governance through the efforts of three entities: central and local governments and civic groups. The right to protect, which is a text of private faith in rural villages in Hexi, deviates from the context in which the central government’s policy, local government’s administration, and civic groups created the right to protect under the intangible cultural heritage system. Civic groups composed of urban residents and experts create new security rights in response to national policies, and local governments create tourism products for large-scale stage plays such as the “The impression of Hexi precious scrolls”. Through such long-term and diverse activities of various actors, ‘Hexi precious scrolls’ has transformed from a rural culture into a great culture of Chinese culture, and is gradually melting deeply into the daily culture of the Hexi people, and is being used as a representative brand of the tourism industry.

고대 사경지 제작에 관한 연구

박지선 한국서지학회 2013 서지학연구 Vol.56 No.-

Based on an excavated ancient paper recently, we could know that paper was invented prior to Cai Lun(蔡倫) of Later Han Dynasty. The technique of manufacturing paper was handed on to Korea peninsular with Buddhism and then to Japan. After the invention of paper, Sutras written on paper were manufactured and preserved up to now. It is regretable to say that our neighbor China and Japan have relatively more old papers than Korea. At the moment, Silla’s paper was left only 4 items, i.e. National Treasure No. 126 Mugujeonggwangdaedaranigyeong (無垢淨光大陀羅尼經), National Treasure No. 196 Paejimukseodaebangqwangbulhwaeomgyeong (白紙墨書大方廣佛華嚴經) or Silla Avatamsaka Sutra written in ink on White paper, Mugujeonggwang-dharani(無垢淨光陀羅尼) excavated from Nawonri 5-storied pagoda, and Mugujeonggwang-dharani excavated from West 5-storied pagoda at hwaeomsa. Among them, what we certainly know the date of production was only Paejimukseodaebangqwangbulhwaeomgyeong. Therefore, we have no option to investigate the characteristics of Silla’s manuscript scrolls. The only one method to investigate the characteristics of Silla’s manuscript scrolls is to make clear the difference between Paejimukseodaebangqwangbulhwaeomgyeong and the manufactured chinese and japanese manuscript scrolls. It was until recently that most of study are related to the bibliographical one and, as a result, the scientific research has been supporting the bibliographical one. We can say that a concomitant feature among China, Japan and Korea is the preparation process of making paper and a subsequent dochim(搗砧) or a stamping treatment, a method smoothing paper by beating it on a fulling block. The ancient paper than the modern paper has several characteristics of which a space between paper-fibers is jam-packed and of high density and its surface is opaque and smooth because people of ancient smash and crush the long fiber made of hemp or Dack-fiber and make a fibril by pounding them in a mortar or a treadmill in the process of paper-manufacturing. I would say that wild horses could not get it out of the characteristic of an ancient paper in investigating a few paper relics. However, we can not help researching the characteristics of an ancient paper through a comparison between an antient paper-manufacturing technique and a few relics at the present time. 종이는 기원전 중국에서 발명되어 사용되었으며 이 종이유물들은 고고발굴에 의해 출토되어 後漢시대의 蔡倫 이전에 종이가 발명되었다는 증거가 되었다. 이후 製紙術은 불교와 함께 한반도에 전해지고 다시 일본으로 전해져 그 결과로 불교경전이 제작되어 현재까지 전해지고 있다. 그러나 안타깝게도 이웃 중국과 일본에는 많은 수의 고대 寫經遺物이 남아 있는 반면 우리나라에서는 거의 찾아보기 어렵다. 현재 新羅寫經이라고 할 수 있는 것은 국보 제126호 無垢凈光大多羅尼經, 국보 제196호 白紙墨書大方廣佛華嚴經, 나원리 오층석탑 출토 多羅尼經, 화엄사 서오층석탑 출토 多羅尼經과 塔印, 모두 4점이다. 이중에서도 확실히 제작시기를 알 수 있는 것은 白紙墨書大方廣佛華嚴經 한 점뿐이므로 현재로서는 白紙墨書大方廣佛華嚴經의 특징을 기준으로 신라시대의 사경의 특징을 찾아내는 수밖에 없다. 즉 白紙墨書大方廣佛華嚴經과의 유사성과 당시 제작된 중국, 일본의 사경과의 차별성을 찾아내는 것이 신라사경의 특징을 규정하는 유일한 방법이라 할 수 있다. 최근까지 연구방법으로 서지학적 조사가 대부분이었으나 과학적 조사가 동원되면서 서지학적 연구를 뒷받침할 수 있는 증거가 되었다. 한국, 중국, 일본의 고대 사경의 공통점은 寫經紙를 제작하는 섬유준비 과정과 건조 후 搗砧과정이라고 할 수 있다. 요즈음의 전통종이에 비해 고대의 종이는 섬유간의 간격이 치밀하고 불투명하며 밀도가 높고 표면이 매끄럽다. 이는 섬유준비과정에서 麻, 혹은 닥섬유 등의 장섬유를 절구 혹은 디딜방아에서 叩解하여 피브릴화 시킨 후 원료를 짧게 절단하여 섬유간의 공극이 없도록 하는 방법이다. 抄紙 후에는 건조된 종이에 수분을 주어 搗砧하여 종이의 밀도를 높이는데 이를 도침이라 한다. 도침의 효과는 먹이 번지지 않고 표면이 평활하여 필획을 의도한대로 표현할 수 있으며 종이도 강도가 증가하여 질긴 종이로 완성된다. 도침 후의 종이를 현미경 관찰하면 섬유 간의 밀착과 투명도, 먹의 상태를 확인할 수 있다. 단순히 서너 점의 유물로 고대사경의 특징을 이야기하는 것에 커다란 무리가 있음을 인정하지 않을 수 없다. 그러나 현재로서는 유물 접근성의 한계 및 기준이 될 수 있는 신라사경의 수의 절대적으로 부족하므로 고대 종이의 제작기법과 현존 유물의 종이를 비교하여 우리나라 고대 사경지의 특징을 살펴보고자 한다.