중국의 자원무기화 ― 희토류 패권의 취약성

박선령 ( Park Sun Ryung ) 서울대학교 국제문제연구소 2017 세계정치 Vol.27 No.-

본 논문 은 희토류(Rare Earths)라는 전략자원에서 중국이 지니고 있는 패권의 이면을 분석한다. 각종 첨단산업에 필수불가결한 원료로 사용되는 희토류는 대체가 불가능하기 때문에 전략 자원으로 분류된다. 이러한 희토류 시장에서 중국은 전 세계 수요의9 0% 이상을 공급하는 희토류 패권국으로 자리 잡고 있다. 한편 2010년 중일 영토분쟁 당시 중국이 취한 대일 희토류 금수조치와, 같은 해 시행된 희토류 수출쿼터 삭감은 국제사회의 희토류 자원안보를 심각하게 위협하는 사건이었다. 특히 중국이 희토류 공급독점적 지위를 무기처럼 활용하였다는 점에서 중국의 대표적인 자‘ 원무기화’의 사례로 꼽히기도 한다. 하지만 본 논문은 중국 희토류 패권의 이면에 집중하여 , 그 공급독점적 지위가 지속적이고도 일방적으로 타국의 희토류 자원안보를 위협하는 것은 아님을 보이고자 한다. 즉, 높은 상호무역의존도와 중국 희토류 산업내부의 문제점으로 인해, 중국의 희토류 패권 이면에도 취약한 면모가 있음을 주장한다. 이는 역설적으로 중국의 희토류 공급독점적 지위도 수입국과의 무역 의존도에서 자유로울 수 없음을 의미하며, 주어진 전략자원을 효과적으로 통제하지 못할 경우 중국의 자원안보도 저해될 수 있음을 시사한다. This chapter analyzes the hypocricy of China’s hegemony over Rare Earths. As one of the strategic minerals, Rare Earths are irreplaceable and indispensable materials used in a wide range of industries. China enjoys its hegemony by producing more than 90 percent of the world’s demands. Given that China’s monopoly in the Rare Earths production, the international community has continuously worried about the possibility that China may weaponize its Rare Earths hegemony at any time. During the 2010 Sino-Japanese ter- ritorial disputes over the Senkaku-Diaoyu Island, the concerns of the international community were validated. China imposed an embargo on its Rare Earths exports to Japan, and Japan had no choice but to release the Chinese captain in question. In addition, China’s decision to slash its Rare Earths export quotas intensified international concerns, which led to the international Rare Earths prices skyrocketing by 16 times. These two cases demonstrate China’s Rare Earths hegemony and the vulnerability of the international society. However, this shows that China also reveals its vulnerability in Rare Earths. The majority of existing studies tend to focus on one-time threatening cases and fail to analyze whether China’s hegemony has continued to threaten other countries’ resource security in Rare Earths. To address this gap in research, I investigate two cases. The first reveals that Japanese consequential responses after the embargo also damaged Chinese Rare Earths industry. The second evidences how the chronic smuggling and fragmented industrial structure in Chinese Rare Earths industry have almost nullified the slashed export restrictions. While I do not deny existing arguments on China’s Rare Earths hegemony, I argue that “exclusively producing a resource” does not necessarily translate into having leverage over the resource security of others.

Preparation of Rare Earth Oxide (REExOy, REE = La, Ce, Nd) Powder from Waste NiMH Batteries: A Simple Platform for Recovery of Rare Earth Elements

( Nak-kyoon Ahn ),( Hyun-woo Shim ),( Dae-hoon Yang ),( Dae-weon Kim ) 한국폐기물자원순환학회(구 한국폐기물학회) 2019 ISSE 초록집 Vol.2019 No.-

Nickel metal hydride batteries (NiMH) are of the important rechargeable secondary batteries. It contains the valuable metals such as Ni, Co, and rare earth metals and thus is necessary to recycle NiMH batteries when discarded after use. In particular, the rare earths are used as essential materials for high-tech products owing to their spectroscopic and magnetic properties. However, due to the most resources of rare earths are concentrated in China, the recovery of rare earths from waste resources are of crucial issues. Recently, research on the separation of rare earths from NiMH batteries has been focused on hydrometallurgy. Among them, the separation of rare earths by adding NaOH to sulfuric acid leaching solution is the simple and easy process. However, the recovered rare earth precipitates are usually in the form of NaREE(SO₄)₂·H₂O (REE: Ce, La, Nd), which is difficult to use commercially. Therefore, it is necessary to convert a form of rare earth precipitate into the rare earth oxides (REExOy). Herein, we present a route for preparing rare earth oxides from waste NiMH batteries. First, the leaching experiments, along with the control of acid concentration (M) and pulp density (g/L) were carried out for recovery of valuable metals. Then NaOH was added to the leachate to separate the rare earths. The recovered rare earths precipitate was analyzed by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD) and Microwave Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (MP-AES), and thermal behavior was also investigated using Thermo Gravimetric Analyzer (TGA). After analyzing the raw materials, NaREE(SO4)_2·H₂O powder was added to the Na₂CO₃ solution and carbonated based on the metathesis reaction followed by heat-treatment in air. With temperature control of heat-treatment, it was confirmed that the composite rare earth was recovered as oxide at 800 ℃.

한국 희토류산업의 국제교역구조와 정책적 시사점

심재희(Jae Hee Shim) 한국무역연구원 2014 무역연구 Vol.10 No.6

The purpose of this article is to analyze international trade structure of Korea s rare earth. Rare earth includes 9 goods such as cerium groups, etc.. Statistical data were obtained from the homepage of Korea Customs Service for the period 2004-2013. Main findings can be summarized as follows: First, while China s export controls on rare earth are being strengthened, rare earth is growing in importance as an international issue. Second, due to the unfavorable positioning in the international trade network in rare earth, Korea is in a difficult position as a price taker. Third, in the inter-national trade of rare earth, any secular trends are not found, and the trade of rare earth is concentrated in China and Japan. Fourth, the trade patterns of rare earth by item are similar to that of total rare earth, but it s income is reduced, and the income gap among countries is getting large. Fifth, looking at the largest trading items, the degree of advantages in each item varies across country, and only a few items continue to maintain the advantages and trading items may not be duplicated in countries. Sixth, while the export-import prices are fluctuated repeatedly in three countries, in recent years export price shows a declining. These findings suggest that Korea should continuously strengthen the national capacity on rare earth, make the long-term plans to secure rare earth on a stable basis, reduce a high dependence on China and Japan s rare earth, secure processing techniques of rare earth, make domestic rare earth prices stable, and maintain a good business environment with a drastic price fluction.

중국 희토류 무기화와 미얀마 군부 쿠데타의 관계 고찰

임상범(Lim, Sang Bum) 한국세계지역학회 2021 世界地域硏究論叢 Vol.39 No.4

본 논문은 중국이 ‘첨단 산업의 비타민’으로 불리는 전략자원인 희토류를 어떻게 무기화해 왔는지 그 역사와 최근 동향을 다루고 있다. 중국은 세계 최대 희토류 생산국이자 매장지이며, 에너지안보 차원에서 미국을 비롯한 경쟁국들을 상대로 이른바 희토류 패권을 추구해 왔다. 우월적인 지위를 이용해 일본이나 미국 등을 상대로 한 분쟁과 협상에서 희토류를 레버리지로 활용해왔다. 하지만 최근 중국은 희토류 생산과정에서 발생하는 환경오염에 대한 국내외의 우려와 국내 희토류 산업의 재편으로 인해 글로벌 희토류 시장에서점유율과 영향력이 점차 감소하게 됐다. 자국 내 희토류 생산을 조절하는 대신 새로운 희토류 공급처가 필요해졌다. 중국은 국경을 마주하는 이웃나라이자 서남아시아 최대의 자원부국인 미얀마에 주목했다. 미얀마산(産) 희토류는 중국으로 수입돼 정제 과정을 거쳐세계 시장으로 다시 수출됐다. 미얀마는 금세 중국의 최대 희토류 수입국이 됐다. 장기간미얀마를 통치해 온 군부는 물론, 민주화 이후 2015년 등장한 문민정부에 이르기까지 중국은 정치적, 경제적 지원을 통해 우호 관계를 유지해왔다. 군부 독재와 로힝야 사태를 비난하며 경제 제재에 나선 서방국가들과 달리 중국은 줄곧 미얀마 정권을 옹호해왔다. 그대가로 희토류를 비롯한 자원조달에 있어서 다양한 특혜를 누려왔다. 특히 올해 초 미얀마에서 일어난 군부 쿠데타는 중국에게는 기회가 됐다. 군부는 그동안 자원에 대한 통제권을이용해 중국으로부터 검은 돈을 확보해 왔고, 그런 군부가 일으킨 쿠데타를 중국은 묵인하고 사실상 지지했다. 미얀마 군부와의 긴밀한 유착을 바탕으로 미얀마산(産) 희토류의 안정적인 공급을 확보한 중국은 다시금 희토류 무기화에 적극적으로 나서고 있다. This paper deals with the history and recent trends of how China has weaponized rare earthelements, a strategic resource called Vitamins of high-tech industries. China is the world slargest producer and reserve of rare earths, and has pursued so-called ‘rare earth hegemony’against the United States and other competitors in terms of energy security. Using its superiorposition, rare earths have been used as leverage in disputes and negotiations against Japanand the United States. However, China s market share and influence in the global rare earthmarket have gradually declined due to domestic and foreign concerns over environmentalpollution in the process of rare earth production and the reorganization of the domestic rareearth industry. Instead of controlling the production of rare earth in the country, China needsa new source of rare earth. China early paid attention to Myanmar, a neighboring countryfacing the border and the largest resource rich country in southwest Asia. Myanmar rareearths were imported into China and exported back to the global market after refining. Myanmar quickly became China s largest importer of rare earth. China has maintainedfriendly relations through political and economic support, including the military, which hasruled Myanmar for a long time, as well as the civilian government, which emerged in 2015after democratization. Unlike Western countries, which criticized the military dictatorshipand the Rohingya crisis and imposed economic sanctions, China has always defended theMyanmar regime. In return, it has enjoyed various preferential treatment in raising resources,including rare earths. In particular, the military coup in Myanmar earlier this year was anopportunity for China. The military has used control over resources to secure black moneyfrom China, and China has condoned and virtually supported the coup caused by such amilitary. China, which has secured a stable supply of Myanmar s rare earth based on its closeties with the Myanmar military, is now actively weaponizing rare earths again.

희귀금속 및 희토류의 전략성과 국가안전보장: 자원의 편재성과 희귀자원 확보정책의 관점에서

김종호 한국국가정보학회 2016 국가정보연구 Vol.9 No.1

Many Koreans received their first introduction to rare earth elements (REEs) in 2010, when the previously obscure commodities became the subjects of front-page headlines. Amid news of an alleged Chinese embargo on REE exports and ensuing concerns over potential supply disruptions, the news-reading public suddenly realized that these raw materials underpin products they care about. REEs are no doubt important strategic materials, and for policymakers, China’s alleged 2010 embargo marked an important new chapter in China’s willingness to use its growing market strength to punctuate a geopolitical point. But the actual events that unfolded in the global REE market following the 2010 episode proved these initial concerns were just the newest entry in a long line of exaggerated fears and panics about leading economies’ access to raw materials. Policymakers and industry executives voiced concern over the many high-tech products reliant on REEs-ranging from state defense systems to green technologies such as wind turbines and electric cars. Meanwhile, average Korean citizens not motivated by policy battles or supply-chain vulnerabilities wanted rare earth products to make their cell phones vibrate, their earphones sound perfect, and their gasoline a little cheaper. As the occasional story had noted for years, REEs are wonder materials. The central problem brought into sharp relief in 2010 was that China had cornered the supply. If ever China were looking for natural resources that its political leaders could use to extract high profits and geopolitical leverage, rare earths appeared a near-perfect candidate. At the time of the alleged 2010 embargo, Chinese firms accounted for 97 percent of rare-earth oxide production and a large fraction of the processing business that turns these into rare earth metals, alloys, and products like magnets. This near-monopoly was in a market with surging demand and intense political resonance in consuming countries. And the most dependent countries-primarily Japan and the United States, but also several European stateshappened to be those over which China most wanted influence. Panicked policymakers in the United States and elsewhere began to consider extraordinary measures to protect their countries from potential Chinese leverage. But even with such apparently favorable circumstances, market power and political leverage proved fleeting and difficult to exploit. Each crisis is different, but the largely successful market response in rare earths offers lessons for policymakers for the next crisis over raw materials imports. Future crises are unlikely to seem so perfectly orchestrated to make the Korea and its allies vulnerable: the materials in question may be more prosaic or the country where supplies are concentrated may loom less ominously than China. But even in the apparently most-dangerous case of rare earth elements, the problem rapidly faded-and not primarily due to government action. In the 2000s, the United States came to depend on China for its supply of rare earth materials, and American consumers came to expect the high performance that those imports allowed in defense systems, consumer electronics, and the growing green economy. Experts projected only further growth in demand for rare earths, so when China ratcheted down its export quota and tried to use its leverage in this market to put political pressure on Japan, pundits and politicians feared the worst. Conditions seemed ideal for China to earn extra-high profits and to compel foreign policy concessions. Supply was extremely concentrated in China, consumer demand seemed large and inelastic, substitute products appeared markedly inferior in quality and price terms, and consumption of critical intermediate goods was focused in a few countries that were specifically the ones China wanted to target with its foreign policy. China may have won the immediate release of a fishing captain, but potential Chinese leverage dissipa... 본고의 연구를 시작한 계기는 희귀금속 및 REE, 특히 희토류에 대한 세계적 동향의언론보도에 있다. 필자는 본고 집필 중에 상상 이상으로 전세계에 걸쳐 자원확보 전쟁이 어지럽게 발생하고 있다는 사실을 확인할 수 있었다. 특히 주요 공급원인 중국에서는 희토류 자원고갈, 환경보호 측면 및 밀수단속 등을 이유로 수출 면에서 제한적 경향이 나타나고 있어 향후 세계적으로 중국의 상황이 주목된다. 어떤 종류의 자원이 한 나라의 안보전략상 중요한 물자인지 여부, 부족한 양을 어느정도 충족시킬 것인가는 수요의 대상이 되는 자원의 공급량, 기술력, 국제정세와 시대배경과 같은 여러 요인으로 구성되어 있다고 생각한다. 과거 유럽의 석탄과 철광석에대해서는 그 이상의 분쟁을 회피할 수 있도록 공동관리 체제 하의 관련국들이 상생 공영하는 방안 현대식으로 말하면 Win-Win방향 설정이 이루어진 것은 잘 알려진 사실이다. 희귀금속 및 REE는 그 자체의 성질이나 그것들을 첨가함으로써 얻을 수 있는효과가 현재는 대체성이 거의 없을 정도로 다양한 고성능을 가진 것에서부터, 민생용도, 우리 생활주변의 폭넓은 기계 및 기구에 응용되었고 현대생활에서는 없어서는 안될 필수적인 소재이다. 본고는 그러한 자원의 전략성과 필요성이라는 점에 주목하면서 현대에서 발생하는희귀자원 문제에 대해서 그 안보적 측면과의 관계에서 분석하고 이러한 자원의 확보방안을 검토하였다. 자원문제는 상당히 널리 논의가 확대될 수 있는 가능성을 가진 것이지만, 본고에서는 특히 군사적 전략상 중요한 자원에 초점을 맞추고, 최근 주목받고 있는 희귀(희소)금속 및 희토류 금속(Rare Earth Elements, REE)에 대하여 논의하였다.

중국 자원수출제한조치에 관한 규범적 체계 연구

신지연,이정표 대한중국학회 2012 중국학 Vol.43 No.-

China is the world’s biggest producer and export of rare earths. China is taking active steps to rare earths for the conservation of exhaustible natural resources and protection of the environment. First China is implementing export licenses to rare earths, therefore companies that acquired export license can engage in rare earths export. China is also taking export quotas, it formed dual barrier by combining with export license, because companies have license for export of rare earths can be assigned quota of rare earths. Export duty rates have increased over the years and rare earths export rebates were abolished to curb export. China also announce a number of policies to limit quantity of mining, producing and exporting rare earths, to prohibit sino-foreign joint-venture cannot enter industry of mining and smelting, and to tighten environmental standards. However, these Chinese domestic measures to rare earths have possibility that inconsistent with WTO rules. China already lost a case that related with raw-materials and the United States, Japan and the EU were initiating WTO case against China’s restrictive measures on rare earths this year. Learning from past experience, China will try to take active actions.

중국의 희토류 자원 수출규제를 둘러싼 국제통상법적 쟁점 및 전망 -``중국-원자재 수출규제 분쟁사건``을 중심으로-

김녹영 ( Nok Young Kim ),고준성 ( Joon Sung Koh ) 안암법학회 2012 안암 법학 Vol.0 No.39

In recent years, rare earths have received worldwide attentions. Chinese leaders have long emphasized the strategic importance of rare earths. As the late Chinese patriarch Deng Xiaoping famously stated, "The Middle East has oil, and China has rare earths." China currently supplies approximately 97 percent of the world`s consumption of "rare earths," which includes 17 elements such as cerium, neodymium, lathanum, yttrium and dysprosium, to name a few. Rare earths have become essential components in high-tech industries such as computer, cell phones, light bulbs, stainless steel and a number of green technologies like wind turbines and hybrid cars. Part II examines the recent rulings of the Dispute Settlement Body (hereinafter "DSB") of the World Trade Organization (hereinafter "WTO") in China-Raw Materials, which have important legal and policy implications. At issue was China`s use of tariffs and non tariff measures to restrict the export of nine raw materials (bauxite, coke, fluorspar, magnesium, manganese, silicon carbide, silicon metal, yellow phosphorus and zinc). The complainants-the United States, the European Union and Mexico-challenged China`s export restraints as violations of the provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (hereinafter "GATT") and China`s Protocol of Accession (hereinafter the "Protocol"). China defended its measures by invoking GATT Article XX (g), which makes an exception for measures relating to the conservation of exhaustible natural resources, and Article XX (b), which allows measures necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health. China`s argumentation, however, was rejected by the WTO judiciary. The WTO judiciary made two key findings. First, it found that China`s export duties breached China`s obligation to eliminate export duties under paragraph 11.3 of the Protocol, and that China may not invoke GATT Article XX to justify its breach, because there is no textual link between paragraph 11.3 and the GATT provision. Second, it found that China`s export restrictions violated GATT Article XI: 1, which prohibits all quantitative restrictions on imports and exports, and that the violation cannot be justified by the environmental exceptions under Article XX (b) or (g) because China failed to demonstrate that it has similarly restricted domestic consumption. Soon after the WTO rulings on China-Raw Materials, the United States, the EU and Japan filed another WTO case, challenging China`s export restrictions on rare earths, tungsten and molybdenum. Part Ⅲ overviews this case. The issues involved in the new case are almost identical with those in China-Raw Materials case, except the stakes are even higher due to the strategic importance of rare earths for high tech industries. It is expected that China will defend its restrictive measures against rare earths by invoking Article XX (b) or (g) and try to revise the irrational WTO regime on export restraints applied to newly acceding countries including China. As a conclusion, Part Ⅳ suggests the perspectives and implications of trade dispute case on China`s rare earths.

Enhanced thermoelectric properties by effective decoupling of electrical, thermal properties and seebeck coefficient through the addition of rare earth sesquioxides in p-type BiSbTe alloys

Madavali, Babu,Shin, Dong-won,Kim, Dong-Soo,Hong, Soon-Jik Elsevier 2019 INTERMETALLICS Vol.105 No.-

<P><B>Abstract</B></P> <P>The decoupling between the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity is a crucial challenge to elevate the figure of merit of a given thermoelectric material. In this research, thermoelectric properties of the rare-earths sesquioxides added Bi-Sb-Te material has been investigated systematically. The electrical conductivity (<I>σ</I>) is increased by increase in carrier concentration due to progressive movement of reduced Fermi level deeper into the valance band. Meanwhile, an effective mass of the rare earth added BiSbTe composites has been increased and contributed to the resonant distortion in density of states (DOS), that gives rises to the enhancement of Seebeck coefficient (<I>α</I>). Owing to the increment of both factors (<I>σ</I> &<I>α</I>), a considerable enhancement in power factor of 14% was achieved for the 2 wt% added BiSbTe/(<I>x</I>-wt%) Nd<SUB>2</SUB>O<SUB>3</SUB> composites. The low content addition of rare earth oxide particles are potentially acts as scattering centers for mid to long wavelength phonons and reduced the thermal conductivity by 7%. The effective decoupling of the electrical and thermal properties by rare earths sesquioxides (Nd<SUB>2</SUB>O<SUB>3</SUB>) provides a 15% enhancement in thermoelectric figure of merit, ZT for 2 wt% added BiSbTe/(<I>x</I>-wt%)Nd<SUB>2</SUB>O<SUB>3</SUB> composites.</P> <P><B>Highlights</B></P> <P> <UL> <LI> Coupling between electrical& thermal conductivity, Seebeck coefficient are broken. </LI> <LI> Electrical conductivity is raised by alteration of Fermi level by rare-earth doping. </LI> <LI> Rare-earth in BSbTe causes resonant distortion in density of states (DOS). </LI> <LI> Dispersed rare-earth particles acts as scattering centers and reduced <I>κ</I> values. </LI> <LI> Dispersion of rare earths sesquioxides in BSbTe provides a 15% enhancement in ZT. </LI> </UL> </P>

Carbon Mineralization Integrated Alkali Activation for Eco-Friendly Enrichment of Rare Earth Elements from Circulating Fluidized Bed Fly Ash

Lai Quang Tuan,Trinh Hai Son,응우옌 티 민 녹,이상규,Mohd Danish Khan,안지환 한국에너지학회 2022 에너지공학 Vol.31 No.1

Coal combustion and coal ash generation has been of global issue in both CO2 emission and waste generation. As rare earths became critical, the significant content of rare earths in coal ash making it a prospect source for rare earths. Rare earths commonly compacted within the amorphous phase with Si, Al, Ca, and Fe. Alkali activation has been proved as the effective method for rare earths enrichment through decomposing amorphous compound. The CO2 emission could be used in the carbon mineralization process to promote alkali activation for rare earths enrichment. This study integrated carbon mineralization and alkali activation into three step of experiments including alkali activation one, carbon mineralization, and alkali activation two for rare earths enrichment. The integrated method had the capacity of CO2 mineralized at 55.37 kg per ton of coal ash and the enrichment rate of rare earths at 25.33%

국내 희유금속광 부존현황 및 개발기술

전호석,백상호,김성민,고병헌 한국자원공학회 2018 한국자원공학회지 Vol.55 No.1

Rare earth metal ore including rare-earth mineral has become a vital resource for high-tech industries. A small amount of rare-earth metal greatly improves properties of existing materials and enhances the developments of semiconductors, displays, high-precision and large-scale equipment. In Korea, the rare-earth metals considered to be not naturally occurring, however, reports suggest that there are economically feasible reserves of light rare-earth monazite and refractory metals such as tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium and metalloid elements tin and alkaline earth metal lithium. Therefore, development of empirical technologies that can effectively secure the domestic natural rare metals will be required. 희토류를 포함한 희유금속광은 첨단산업에 없어서는 안 될 필수자원으로, 적은 양만 사용하여도 기존재질 의 물성특성을 크게 향상시킴으로, 반도체, Display, 첨단정밀 및 대형장비의 발전을 촉진시키는 계기가 되었다. 이러 한 희유금속광의 경우 국내에는 부존되어 있지 않은 것으로 생각하고 있으나, 우리나라에도 경희토류인 모나자이트 와 고융점 금속인 텅스텐, 티타늄, 몰리브덴과 반금속원소인 주석 그리고 알카리토금속인 리튬 등이 경제성 있는 규모 로 부존되어 있는 것으로 보고되고 있다. 따라서 향후 국내부존 희유금속광을 효율적으로 확보할 수 있는 실증화 기술 개발이 요구된다.