비정규직 고용과 기업성과의 비선형적 관계에 관한 연구

노세리(Se Ri No),김미희(Mihee Kim),이상민(Sang-Min Lee) 한국경영학회 2015 經營學硏究 Vol.44 No.6

This study investigated the relationship between nonstandard employment and firm financial performance based on contingent configurational perspective (Lepak & Snell, 1999). The theory suggests a moderate level of employment externalization improve firm performance. Nonstandard work is the one form of employments. Previous studies have insisted linear relationship between nonstandard employment and firm performance. Based on various precede literatures of the relationship between nonstandard employment and firm performance, we hypothesized inverted U-shape relationship between nonstandard employment and firm financial performances. To investigate the hypothesis, we used 「2007 workplace panel survey」, 「2009 workplace panel survey」, 「2011 workplace panel survey」provided by Korea Labor institute. We found the curvelinear relationship between nonstandard employment and financial performance in terms of the per business profits. Furthermore, we investigated curvelinear relationship between nonstandard employment and financial performance depends on industry and firm size. We found the curvelinear relationship between nonstandard employment and the per business profits in manufacturing industry and large sized firms. However, we did not find significant relationship between nonstandard employment and the per business profits in non-manufacturing industry and small and medium sized firms. According to the result, we proposed expanded theoretical perspective in the relationship between nonstandard employment and firm performance. We suggested that a moderate ratio of nonstandard worker archive the highest level of firm performance. In addition, we insisted that the firms need to consider a reasonable ratio of nonstandard worker in the organization depend on specific organizational context. Therefore, the firm inquire various way to manage nonstandard worker such as transition of nonstandard employment to the standard employment.

Nonstandard Employment and Organizational Effectiveness: The Transition from Nonstandard to Standard Employment in South Korea

Sun Min An,Jin Woo Lee 한국학술연구원 2021 Korea Observer Vol.52 No.2

To address the insecure work conditions of nonstandard employment, South Korea’s government is transitioning nonstandard employment to standard employment in public organizations. Despite this policy’s normative adequacy, previous studies have rarely focused on the impact of these employment practices on organizational effectiveness. To fill this gap, we examine how the rates of nonstandard employment and transition, and the interaction between them, affect organizational effectiveness. Using longitudinal data from public organizations in South Korea and the generalized method of moments analysis, the results show that the transition policy has conflicting consequences depending on employment type. Direct nonstandard employment transitions negatively impact organizational effectiveness, contrary to indirect nonstandard employment’s positive impact. We suggest that a transition policy should be implemented to improve nonstandard employees’ work conditions and their relationship with their initial standard employment.

비정규직 노동자 고용의 기업내부 결정요인에 관한 연구

신상인 한국인적자원관리학회 2005 인적자원관리연구 Vol.12 No.4

The employment pattern has been greatly changed since the currency crisis. The ratio of nonstandard employment among the wageworkers has been 52% as of the late year of 2002. The rapid increase of nonstandard employment has been approached in broad perspective or has been still at the level of proposing the government policy. Therefore, there has not been rich study that examines closely decision of the nonstandard employment and the internal elements of business groups affecting this decision. This study has researched the determinants of nonstandard employment from the viewpoint of the internal business groups and has by experience examined the propriety of its determinants in Korea. The increase of nonstandard employment would be explained from the variously theoretical viewpoints. This study has largely analyzed the increase of nonstandard employment from the five theoretical viewpoints such as strategic fitness, resource-based theory, institutional theory, environmental fitness, and transaction-cost theory. A hypothesis has been formulated on the bassis of the above-mentioned theory and another hypothesis is a moderation effect of the union which would be moderated between theoretical variables and ratio of nonstandard employment. The research materials were collected from the 148 business groups to verify the hypothesis. The results of analysis showed that the greater the coercive and mimetic isomorphism from the viewpoint of theory and the lower the technical skill from the viewpoint of transaction cost theory, the greater the increase of nonstandard employment. Thereupon, the union moderated the nonstandard employment ratio from technical skill. This result showed that if there has been the union, the nonstandard employment ratio has still overwhelmed the technical skill. Lastly, implications and limitations of the result were suggested. 이 연구는 기업에서 비정규직 고용을 결정하는 요인이 과연 무엇인지를 기업 내부의 요인에 초점을 두고 경험적으로 탐색하였다. 이러한 비정규직 고용증가 현상은 다양한 이론적 관점으로 설명할 수 있다. 크게 경영전략적합성론, 자원근거이론, 제도화이론, 환경적합성론 및 거래비용이론 등 다섯 가지 이론적 관점에서 비정규직 고용의 비중차이를 분석하였다. * 서경대학교 경영대학원 강사, (주)홍성 이사 E-mail:ssi0918@chosun.com각 이론에 기초하여 가설을 설정하고, 노동조합의 조절효과도 가설로 설정하였다. 이의 가설을 검증하기 위해 우리나라 제조업체 148개 기업을 대상으로 자료를 수집하였다. 분석 결과, 제도화 이론 관점에서 모방적·강압적 동상화 압력이 클수록, 거래비용이론 관점에서 기술숙련도가 낮을수록 비정규직 고용비중 증가와 관련이 있는 변수로 나타났다. 이 때 노동조합은 기술숙련도에서 비정규직 고용비중을 유의하게 조절하는 것으로 나타났다. 이러한 분석결과는 노동조합이 존재할 때 기술의 숙련도가 높아도 비정규직 고용비율이 증가한다는 것이다. 분석결과를 토대로 결과에 대한 함의를 제시하였다. 또한 연구의 한계점과 앞으로의 연구를 위한 방향을 제시하였다.

비정규직 고용 실태 및 인적자원관리의 과제

김강식 ( Kang Sik Kim ) 한독경상학회 2008 經商論叢 Vol.26 No.3

지난 10여년간 노동시장에서 비정규직이 크게 증가하였고, 이 과정에서 임금 및 근로조건 차별, 위법·탈법적 활용 등의 부정적 사례가 빈발하면서 비정규직 문제는 한국사회의 핵심쟁점의 하나가 되었다. 비정규직 문제는 사회적 차원에서뿐만 아니라 기업경쟁력 차원에서도 중요한 의미를 갖는다. 그동안 대부분의 한국기업에서 인적자원관리는 정규직사원만을 대상으로 실시되어 왔고 비정규직 근로자는 그 대상이 아니었다. 그 결과 기업에서 비정규직 근로자들의 동기를 유발하고 사기를 향상시켜 업무능률을 제고하는데 성공하지 못해 왔으며 조직측면에서도 생산성을 제고하고 경쟁력을 향상시키는데 한계가 있었다. 이에 따라 비정규직 근로자에 대한 적극적이고 전략적인 인적자원관리가 요청된다. 비정규직 근로자에 대한 인적자원관리에서는 한편으로는 최근 제정된 비정규직보호법을 준수하고, 정규직 근로자와의 차별시비를 해소할 수 있는 방안이 모색되어야 하고, 다른 한편으로는 비정규직 근로자들의 의욕과 능력을 극대화하여 기업의 성과에 기여하게 하는 방안의 모색이 요청된다. Nonstandard work has been at the center of public debates since last ten years. The increasing use of nonstandard workers in Korea has implications for the employment relations and human resource management. The main purposes of this paper are: to identify various types of employment arrangements and to define nonstandard employment arrangements, to present from the theoretical views reasons why firm utilize nonstandard workers, to examine differences in working conditions between standard and nonstandard employment arrangements, to decompose the wage differentials into the price effect and the productivity effect, and to investigate the countermeasures on the aspects of human resource management to the challenges of the issues and problems of nonstandard employment arrangements. Nonstandard work is characterized with low wages, limited fringe benefits including social insurance, and deficient job security, These negative characteristics can be interpreted as a lower labor costs and higher flexibility of employment from the employer`s view. Suggestions how to organize human resource managements instruments for nonstandard workers are presented to illustrate the value of human resource management for nonstandard workers.

간접고용 결정 요인: 거래비용 이론과 비용우위 이론을 중심으로

김성훈 ( Sung Hoon Kim ) 전북대학교 사회과학연구소 2011 지역과 세계 Vol.35 No.1

이 연구는 최근 한국 노동시장에서 파견, 용역, 호출 등의 간접고용 비정규직이 늘어나고 있는 현상을 거래비용 이론과 비용우위 이론을 통해 ``한국노동패널조사`` 자료를 분석함으로써 설명하려고 하였다. 거래비용 이론에 따르면, 직무가 불확실하면 노동자의 기회주의적 행동이 나타나서 거래비용이 커지기 때문에, 거래비용을 줄이기 위해 고용주는 비정규노동자를 직접 고용하게 된다. 비용우위 이론에 따르면, 기업 외부의 전문 인력의 활용, 고정자본의 최소화, 시장 변동에 대한 유연한 대처, 저임금의 활용 등은 간접고용의 증가를 통해 기업의 생산비용의 절감과 수익의 증대로 이어지게 된다. 직접고용, 네트워크형 간접고용, 시장형 간접고용으로 나뉘는 비정규직 고용형태를 종속변수로 하는 다항로짓분석의 결과는 거래비용 이론보다는 비용우위 이론이 간접고용을 분석하는 데 더 설명력이 높다는 점을 보여 준다. 비용우위 이론을 검증하기 위한 변수 가운데 산업 변수가 직접고용에 비해 간접고용, 특히 네트워크형 간접고용이 이루어질 가능성에 의미 있는 영향을 미치는 반면에, 거래비용 이론을 검증하기 위한 변수인 직무 불확실성은 의미 있는 영향을 미치지 못하기 때문이다. 따라서 한국 노동시장에서 비정규직 고용형태 설명에 더 적절한 요인은 직무의 성격과 노동자의 기회주의적 행동이라기보다는 생산비용의 절감을 위한 시장 기제나 여러 조직적 요인이라고 할 수 있다. This study aims to explain the fact that nonstandard workers under indirect employment such as temporary agency workers, contract workers, and on-call workers increased recently in the Korean labor market by analyzing the Korea Labor and Income Panel Study data in view of the transaction cost theory and the cost leadership theory. According to the transaction cost theory, employers employ nonstandard workers directly to decrease transaction cost, which rises when uncertain tasks make workers behave in an opportunistic way. According to the cost leadership theory, utilizing outside experts, minimizing fixed capital, preparing flexibly for volatile markets, and utilizing low wages lead to decreasing firms` production cost and increasing their profits through increasing indirect employment. Results of multinomial logit analyses on the employment type of nonstandard workers consisting of direct employment, network-type indirect employment, and market-type indirect employment show that the cost leadership approach is more significant in analyzing indirect employment than the transaction cost approach: Among the variables used to test for the cost leadership theory, ``industry`` significantly affects the possibility of indirect employment, especially network-type indirect employment, vis-a-vis direct employment, but ``task uncertainty`` used to test for the transaction cost theory does not. Therefore, we can conclude that market mechanism or various organization-level factors for decreasing production cost are more appropriate in explaining the employment type of nonstandard workers in the Korean labor market than characteristics of tasks and workers` opportunistic behaviors are.

기간제 근로자의 정규직 전환에 영향을 미치는 요인 : 탐색적 연구

김동배 한국인사·조직학회 2013 인사조직연구 Vol.21 No.4

본 연구는 한국노동연구원의 2005년~2009년의 사업체패널 자료를 사용하여 기간제 근로자의 정규직 전환에 영향을 미치는 요인을 분석하였다. 분석 결과 정규직 고용보호의 지표인 노동조합은 정규직 전환 확률이나 전환비율을 낮추는 효과가 나타났지만, 정규직 고용보장 여부는 기간제 근로자의 정규직 전환에 영향을 미치지 않았다. 정규직 근로자의 기능적 유연성은 2007년~2009년 표본에서 정규직 전환 확률과 전환비율을 높이는 것으로 나타났다. 대체적 수량적 유연성으로서 기간제 이외의 비정규직 비중은 2005년~2007년 표본에서는 정규직 전환비율을 높이는 것으로 나타났고, 기간제 근로자 비중은 2007년~2009년 표본에서 정규직 전환 확률과 정규직 전환 비율을 높이는 것으로 나타났다. 보상경직성의 지표인 호봉제는 2007년~2009년 표본에서 정규직 전환 확률과 정규직 전환 비율을 모두 낮추는 것으로 나타났다. 마지막으로 기간제 보호법 시행 이전인 2005년~2007년 표본과 법률 시행 이후인 2007년~2009년 표본간에 정규직 전환 확률이나 전환비율에 통계적으로 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 이상의 분석결과가 갖는 함의와 추후 연구과제를 제시하였다. Using the 2005, 2007, and 2009 waves of the Workplace Panel Survey(WPS) data by Korea Labor Institute, this study investigates the transition from fixed-term contract work into permanent employment. Fixed-term contracts are a representative form of nonstandard work in Korea. The share of fixed-term contracts among all wage-earning employees in Korea stands at roughly 15% as of 2013. As in other countries, Korean researchers have extensively debated the advantages and disadvantages of fixed-term contracts, and previous studies tell us that both the "bridge" and "trap" effects of fixed-term contracts co-exist in Korea. Previous studies regarding transition from fixed-term contracts have to date been conducted mostly by economists and sociologists, and their analysis has focused primary on the individual rather than the firm. So much more research is needed at firm level to determine which firms allow transition from fixed-term contracts to permanent jobs, and which firms do not. This paper explores the antecedents of transition from fixed-term contracts to permanent employment. Based on a review of previous studies, this paper explores five research hypotheses. H 1: Employment protection level of regular work is negatively associated with the transition from fixed-term contracts to regular employment. H 2: Functional flexibility of regular work is positively associated with the transition from fixed-term contracts to regular employment. H 3-1: The intensity of nonstandard work, except for fixed-term contracts, is positively with the transition from fixed-term contracts to regular employment. H 3-2: The intensity of fixed-term contracts is positively with the transition from fixed-term contracts to regular employment. H 4: Seniority pay of regular work is negatively associated with the transition from fixed-term contracts to regular employment. H 5: Non-regular worker related laws in Korea enacted in July 2007 are positively associated with the transition from fixed-term contracts to regular employment. This paper divided the 2005~2009 waves of the WPS into two sub-samples, that is a 2005~2007 sample and a 2007~2009 sample to coincide with the WPS's convention of measuring the incidence and intensity of transition over two years. Dependent variables are the incidence and intensity of transition from fixed-term contracts. Except for testing H5, this paper used two sub-samples for its model estimation. For H5, this paper pooled the two sub-sample data sets and estimated the effect of new Korean laws by using a year dummy. We used logistic regression to estimate the incidence and tobit regression to estimate the intensity of transition out of fixed-term contracts. The findings are as follows.; Existence of a trade union (H1), an indicator of the employment protection level of regular work, was negatively associated with the incidence of transition from fixed-term contracts in the 2005~2007 sample. But provision of employment security (H1), another indicator of employment protection level of regular work, was not related with transition from fixed-term contracts. Functional flexibility of regular work (H2) was positively related with both the incidence and intensity of transition from fixed-term contracts in the 2007~2009 sample. The intensity of nonstandard work, except fixed-term contracts (H3-1), was positively related with both the incidence and intensity of transition from fixed-term contracts in the 2005~2007 sample, and the intensity of fixed-term contracts (H3-2) was positively related with both the incidence and intensity of transition from fixed-term contracts in the 2007~2009 sample. Seniority pay (H4) was negatively related with both the incidence and intensity of transition from fixed-term contracts in the 2007~2009 sample. Enactment of nonregular worker related laws in Korea (H5) were not related with transition from fixed-term contracts.

비정규직 관련법의 문제점과 개선방안

조상균(Sang Kyun Cho) 한국고용노사관계학회 2010 産業關係硏究 Vol.20 No.1

2009년 7월 1일로 비정규직 근로자의 보호를 목적으로 제정 또는 개정된 비정규직 관련법이 시행된 지 2년이 되었다. 그러나 원래 비정규직 관련법이의도했던 비정규직 근로자의 ‘고용안정’과 ‘차별금지’는 친사용자적 정부로 평가받고 있는 현 정부의 정책기조와 경제위기라는 사회ㆍ경제적 환경 속에서 구조조정 수단의 하나로 작용하는 등 입법화 과정에서부터 시작된 많은 논란이 실제로 현실화되는 결과를 낳고 있다. 따라서 본고는 법 시행 2년에 즈음하여 현행 비정규직법의 문제점을 종합적으로 검토해 보고, 기왕의 비정규직법의 개정 움직임에 맞추어, 처음 비정규직법을 제정 또는 개정 시에 논의되었던 입법 취지에 부합할 수 있는 내용으로 개정되기 위한 구체적 논의에 시사점을 주는 것을 목적으로 한다. 연구 결과에 따르면, 우선 ‘고용보장’에 있어 최근의 비정규직 감소 경향이나 정규직 전환율의 상승이 비정규직법의 시행 효과라고 평가한다. 따라서 ‘고용보장’ 측면에서는 제도의 개선을 중심으로 한 단기적 조치가 시급히 요구되지만, 장기적으로는 기간제 근로자에 대한 ‘기한제한’ 방식을 그대로 유지하면서 ‘반복갱신 사유’를 부과하는 방법을 제시해 보았다. 또한 ‘차별금지’에 있어서는 전면적인 개선이 시급히 필요하다는 전제하에 종래 학계에서 연구된 내용을 제외하고 최근 쟁점화될 가능성이 있는 주제를 중심으로 구제신청자의 확대, 구제신청 기간에 대한 재검토, 합리적 이유의 판단 기준에 대한 문제에 대한 해명을 중심으로 논하였다. 오늘날 비정규직 문제는 개별적인 노사 문제를 떠나서 사회 전체에 영향을 끼치는 사회 문제의 핵심으로 자리잡고 있다. 결국 우리 사회가 비정규직 문제를 풀지 못하는 한 사회양극화 문제, 사회분열 등 돌이킬 수 없는 혼란에 따른 비용을 각자가 지출해야 하는 것이다. 따라서 비정규직 문제의 해결의 시급성이 여기에 있다고 할 수 있다. As of July 1, 2009, it has been two years since the enactment of and the amendments to the law on nonstandard workers with the stated purpose of protecting the nonstandard workers. However, the concerns and the controversies over the law that arose during the enhancementprocess have become reality. For instance, the original goals of the law, ‘employment security’ and ‘anti-discrimination,’ are somehow being used as means of business restructuring under the current employer-friendly administration’s policies and the socio-economic environments resulted from the global economic crisis. In this regard, this paper attempts toreview the problems of the current nonstandard workers law comprehensively. It also intends to shed light on the detailed discussions being conducted to amend the law to conform it to the original legislative purpose that was debated during the enactment process. According to the researches in this area, as for the issue of ‘employment security,’ the recent decrease of the number of nonstandard jobs and the increase of the conversion rate from nonstandard to standard have been considered the effect of the law. Hence, as for the issue of ‘employment security,’ while short-term measures including the improvement of the current system are urgently needed, this paper proposes that we impose the requirement of ‘the causes for repeated renewal’ in long run. In addition, as for the issue of ‘anti-discrimination,’ with the assumption that an overall improvement is urgently required, this paper discusses the solutions for the issues that might become controversies such as the enlargement of the applicants for relief, the re-examination of the application for relief period, and the standard for reasonable cause. This paper excludes the issues that have been researched and discussed already in the academic circle. Today, the issue of nonstandard workers, which affects the entire society as well as the labor relations, is located at the center of the social problems. After all, if our society fails to resolve the issue of nonstandard workers, every one of us will have to pay costs associated with the irreparable problems like the social polarization and divisions. The urgency to handle this problem therefore lies here.

Mechanisms Linking Employment Type and Health: Panel Data Analysis with Fixed-Effects Models

임소정,성백선 한국보건사회연구원 2019 保健社會硏究 Vol.39 No.4

Using twelve waves of data from the Korean Welfare Panel Study (2006-2017), we evaluate mechanisms linking employment type to various health outcomes, including depression, self-esteem, and self-rated health with a focus on differences between standard and other types of employment. Guided by prior research, we examine several mechanisms such as economic insecurity and psychosocial stressors, using fixed-effects models that control for unobserved time-invariant individual heterogeneity. Our findings confirm the importance of selection in that much of the association between employment type and health observed in simple cross-sectional OLS models loses significance in fixed-effects models. We also find supporting evidence for the mediating role of economic insecurity and psychosocial stressors. For instance, the lower levels of satisfaction in job and life conditions help explain lower self-esteem of male nonstandard workers relative to standard workers. It is also interesting that the hypothesized mediators often suppress the relationship between employment status and health in which a significant relationship is revealed only when the specific mediator is taken into account. Findings of this study will shed valuable insights on the pathways in which specific employment types affect men’s and women’s health outcomes.

특수형태근로종사자들의 보호에 관한 연구

이우진 한국부패학회 2018 한국부패학회보 Vol.23 No.1

Although “Persons in Special Types of Employment” is a worker, but is excluded from the definition of the "worker" concept of the Labor Standards Act and Trade Union and Labor Relations Act, and thus is not covered by the labor-related laws such as the Labor Standards Act and Trade Union and Labor Relations Act. Therefore, in the labor and academia, it is classified as a type of irregular worker and is called as a special employment irregular worker. The current Labor Standards Act and the Trade Union and Labor Relations Act narrowly define the concept of “worker”, and the majority of “Persons in Special Types of Employment” are not covered by workers' categories, thus failing to be protected by labor-related laws and regulations. This article focuses on trends in case law and examines these issues. In this article, we have reconstructed the criteria for judging whether workers with “Persons in Special Types of Employment” are employees or not through the case of a operation writer in the broadcast. In particular, it is the position of this paper that the majority of “Persons in Special Types of Employment” should be recognized as laborers under the Labor Union Act and that the labor's three primary rights should be guaranteed. 특수형태근로종사자는 노동자임에도 근로기준법과 노동조합및노동관계조정법(이하 노동조합법)의 ‘근로자’ 개념 정의에서 배제됨으로써 근로기준법과 노조법 등 노동관계법의 적용을 받지 못하고 있어 노동계와 학계에서는 비정규직의 한 유형으로 분류되어 특수고용 비정규직으로 명명되고 있다. 현행 근로기준법과 노동조합법은 근로자의 개념을 매우 좁게 규정하고 있어 특수형태근로종사자들의 대다수가 근로자의 범주에 속하지 못하게 됨으로써 노동관련 법규들의 보호를 받지 못하고 있다. 즉 우리 판례는 노동조합법상의 근로자개념과 근로기준법상의 근로자개념이 다를 수 있는데도 양자를 사용종속관계라는 동일한 기준에 집착하여 해석하고 있는 경향이 있다. 이는 사회적인 이슈로 대두되고 있는 특수형태근로종사자들의 단결권보장에 많은 문제가 있을 것으로 생각된다. 이 글에서는 이와 같은 문제점에 대해 주로 판례의 동향을 중점적으로 살펴보고 검토하였다. 특히 방송국 구성작가 등의 사례를 중심으로 특수형태근로종사자들의 근로자성 판단에 대한 기준을 재구성해 보았으며 노동조합법상의 근로자와 관련하여 대다수의 특수형태근로종사자들에게 노동삼권을 보장하는 방식으로 해석론을 전개해야 한다는 것이 본고의 입장이다.

산별교섭에 대한 평가 및 만족도의 영향요인 분석 : 보건의료노조의 사례

이주희(Joohee Lee) 한국노동연구원 2005 노동정책연구 Vol.5 No.2

2004년 실시된 보건의료산업의 첫 산별 중앙교섭에 대한 평가와 만족도가 조합 내 지위나 소속 병원의 특성에 따라 어떻게 달라지는지 살펴본 결과, 의료공공성과 산별 기본협약, 그리고 비정규직 등 산별교섭의 핵심 이슈에 대해 상집 간부 및 임원과 평 조합원 사이에 만족도에 차이가 있었고, 또 특성별로는 국립대나 사립대 병원 등 상대적으로 나은 근로조건을 가진 조합원의 불만족도가 상대적으로 높은 경향이 있음을 관찰할 수 있었다. 보건의료노조가 이렇게 산별교섭의 안정적 정착에 우려가 되는 경향을 완화시키기 위해서는 수직적ㆍ수평적 교섭구조의 조율방안 마련과 산업내 임금 및 근로조건 격차를 축소시키는 작업이 필요하다. Established in 1998, the Korean Health and Medical Workers Union completed its first industry-level collective bargaining in 2004. Based on the Union's 2004 Survey, which contained about 4,000 union members responses to the questionnaire, I investigated the union members' evaluation of the industry-level bargaining in 2004. Overall, the union members were rather satisfied with the outcome of the industry-level agreement, but their responses differed on specific bargaining items, depending on their status within the Union, and on the characteristics of the hospitals to which they belong. The leaders of the Union were more satisfied with the framework agreement, and less satisfied with the agreement related to improving the working conditions of nonstandard workers, than rank-and-file members were. Compared to the workers in small private hospitals, those workers employed in more profitable public or private university hospitals with higher employers' ability to pay were less satisfied with the wage increase rate, which was lower than the usual due to the introduction of 5-day work. These findings of the paper point to the following two policy recommendations. First, the Union must improve the coordination and cooperation among its hospital locals. The process inevitably involves tightening control of the Union over its locals. Second, it order to secure safe landing of the industry-level bargaining, the existing wage gap and differences in working conditions between large hospitals and small and medium sized hospitals must be narrowed.