태종대 제 1차 여진정벌과 동북면 여진관계

박정민(Park, Jung-Min) 백산학회 2008 白山學報 Vol.- No.80

But this good relationship was changed during the reign of Taejong. Because in the period Emperor Youngrak of Ming dynasty enforced a new policy to make peace with Jurchens changing Ming’s traditional policy against them. Most of Jurchens in the northeast region accepted the request of the reconciliation of Ming after Tong Mongke Temur of Odori visited the Royal Court of Ming. Reacting on Jurshens’ submission to Ming, Chosun took some economic countermeasures against them such as closing the trade center at Kyongwon. The Jurchens who suffered from them economically invaded Kyongwon of Chosun in 1406. After that many invasions followed and Byungmasa, Han Hung-bo was at last killed by Udike and other Jurchens in 1410. After all, King Taejong decided to make an attack on the Jurchens. As a result of the first expedition against Jurchens, the number of their envoys from 1410(10th year of King Taejong) to 1430(4th year of King Sejong) increased in a large degree, while their invasions remarkably decreased. After the death of King Taejong, Tong Monke Temur, the chief of the Odori tribe first moved to Bongju in 1411 and then returned back to his base, Hoeryong in 1423. In short, it was possible that Chosun took the initiative in the relation with Jurchens by the active expedition of Taejong. But the expedition also gave Ming the excuse for Chisese Gimi to Jurchens.

조선초기의 여진 관계와 여진인식의 고착화

박정민(Park,Jung-Min) 한일관계사학회 2010 한일관계사연구 Vol.35 No.-

이 글에서는 조선초 집권층의 여진에 대한 인식과 그 변화과정을 여진 관계의 추이와 함께 살펴보고자 한다. 조선건국 이전부터 태조는 동북면 여진인들과 우호적인 관계를 맺고 있었고, 이들을 조선의 영향력 하에 두었다고 자신했다. 태종 초년에도 전대처럼 여진과의 우호적 관계를 유지하고 있었다. 하지만 1405년에 명의 초유로 동북면 여진인이 응하여 그들과의 관계가 악화되었다. 결국 1406년에 올적합이 조선을 침략한 것을 계기로 조선과 여진의 관계는 침략과 방어의 관계로 전환되었고,1410년의 제1차 여진정벌로 인해 조선과 여진의 관계와 인식이 악화되었다. 한편 태종은 정벌이라는 강경책을 사용하는 한편 회유책을 통해 이들에 대한 영향력을 강화하였다. 세종도 1432년까지는 태종의 정책을 답습하여 여진인을 대하였다. 특히 1423년에 회령으로 돌아온 동맹가첩목아에 대해 우대의 정책을 펼쳤지만, 한편으로 그들을 경계하기도 하였다. 1433년(세종 15)에는 제1차 파저강 정벌과 동맹가첩목아의 피살 등의 중요한 사건들이 있었기 때문에 이를 기준으로 시기를 구분 할 수 있다. 이후 1437년의 계2차 파저강 정벌,1440년의 범찰과 동창의 파저강 이주 등 일련의 사건들로 여진인에 대한 부정적 인식이 급증하여 그들에 대한 인식의 고착화가 나타났다. 이러한 인식에 의해 조선은 여진을 ‘夷狄’이라기보다 ‘禽獸’에 가까운 개념으로 보았던 것이다. 하지만 세종은 여진에 대한 부정적인 인식을 가지면서도, 여진정책에 있어서는 포용의 자세로 임하고자 했다. 그 결과 여진정책의 근간은 세종대에 완성되었고,이후에도 영향을 미쳤다고 생각한다. 따라서 조선초 여진인식은 조선의 지배층의 대외관 뿐 아니라,여진정책 추진에 중요한 요소로서 작용하였다는 점에서 의의가 있다고 생각한다. In this paper I hope to show how awareness of ruling classes about Jurchen(女眞) was changed from development of its relation in the early years of Chosun(朝鮮). Taijo(太祖) treated in a friendly way toward Jurchen from immediately after birth of Chosun, and was overconfident that Jurchens were under it. And it was keeping friendly relation with Jurchen in the early years of Teajong(太宗)’s Period. But relations between the two countries became worse because Ming(明) conciliated the Northeast Jurchens in 1405. Ultimately, Udike(兀狄哈) invaded Chosun, so relations between them were changed ones of aggression and defense in 1406. The relation and perception between them became worse because of the first Juchen campaign in 1410. On the one hand Teajong have took a hard line with conquest, but on the other, strengthened influence through conciliatory policy. sejong(世宗) also treated Jurchen in accordance with Taejoug’s policy until l432. Chosun have carried out a much better treatment about Tong Mongke Temur(重猛哥帖木兒) who returned to Haeryong in 1423, but kept strict watch about Li Manzhu(李滿住). In 1433, this time was important events of the First conquest of Pajur, Tong Mongke Temur"s death, and so on. These were a starting point of development of 4 counties and 6 of fortresses(4郡6鎭). After that events, there are the second conquest of Pajur in 1437, migration into river of Pajur(波猪江) of Bum-chal(凡察) and Dong-Chang(重倉) in 1440, and so on. As a result, a lot of negative cognition about them were increased and became permanent in Chosun. However, Sejong had not only negative cognition about Jurchens, but had tolerant attitude. As the result, the basis of Jurchen policy was competed in Sejong, continuing to have a effect after the this time. Thus, I think that awareness about Jurchen appeared not only a view of diplomacy of Chosunruling classess but worked as important factor to promote Jurchen policy.

明初의 말 수급체계와 거래가격― 女眞⋅高麗⋅朝鮮에 대한 말 수매가를 중심으로 ―

임경준 한서대학교 동양고전연구소 2022 동방학 Vol.- No.46

The Ming Dynasty, which was in military conflict with Mongolia, tried to secure a military horse. Hongwu Emperor installed Taipusi as a horse management organization to encourage horse breeding. However, after the Jingnan campaign, horses became scarce. Accordingly, Yongle Emperor promoted a policy to purchase horses from the Jurchen people and the Joseon Dynasty. Yongle Emperor established a market for horse trading in the border area of Liaodung to trade horses with Jurchen people, and sent envoys to Joseon to trade horses. An interesting trend can be found by comparing the horse purchase prices of the Ming Dynasty by region around the 15th century. Compared to the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, the price of horses fell sharply in the early Joseon Dynasty, reflecting Hongwu Emperor's negative attitude to Joseon. However, Jianwen Emperor, who was on the defensive at Jingnan Campaign, bought horses from Joseon at a much higher price than before. After Yongle Emperor ascended the throne, the price per horse resulted in three silk and two cotton fabrics. Meanwhile, in the case of Jurchen, the average purchase price of horses traded in Liaodung was initially 3.6 rolls of silk and 14.6 rolls of cotton fabrics, and then changed to 5 seoks of rice, 3.2 rolls of silk, and 3.2 rolls of cotton fabrics. Comparing Jurchen with Goryeo and Joseon, it can be said that the Ming Dynasty gave preferential treatment to Jurchen compared to Goryeo or Joseon. The national relationship between Ming and Goryeo and Joseon was affecting the horse's transaction price. 明朝는 몽골~北元 세력과 군사적으로 대립하고 있었던 까닭에 軍馬의 지속적인 확보에 몰두하였다. 명을 건국한 洪武帝는 官馬의 관리기구로서 太僕寺를 설치하고 수도인 南京 일대의 人戶를 養馬戶로 편성하여 말의 사육을 장려하였다. 그러나 洪武帝 사후 발발한 靖難의 役을 거치면서 방목지는 황폐해지고 국가의 官馬는 빠르게 고갈되었다. 靖難의 役에서 승리한 永樂帝는 女眞과 朝鮮에서 말을 수매하는 정책을 추진하였다. 永樂帝는 遼東의 접경지역에 馬市를 설치하고 女眞과 말을 거래하였고, 조선에 대해서는 사신을 파견하여 말 거래를 제안하였다. 15세기를 전후한 시기 明의 말 수매가를 지역별로 비교해 보면 흥미로운 추이를 확인할 수 있다. 고려말에 비하여 조선초에는 가격이 대폭 하락하였는데, 이는 조선에 대한 홍무제의 부정적인 태도가 반영된 결과라 판단된다. 그러나 靖難의 役이 발발하고 수세에 몰린 建文帝가 제안한 말 가격은 이전과 비교하기 어려울 정도로 높은 가격이었다. 이후 永樂帝가 즉위하자 말 1필당 가격은 견직물 3필과 면직물 2필이란 수매가로 귀착된다. 한편 女眞의 경우 遼東 馬市에서 거래된 말의 평균 수매가가 永樂 3년에 견직물 3.6필⋅면직물 14.6필이었고 이후 永樂 15년에는 米 5석과 견직물⋅면직물 각 3.2필이었던 것과 비교한다면, 명은 고려나 조선에 비해 女眞을 더 우대하고 있었다고 볼 수 있다. 명과 고려~조선 간의 국가관계가 말의 거래가격에 영향을 미치고 있었다고 판단된다.

조선중기 鹿屯島 확보와 北兵使 李鎰에 관한 일고찰

李源明(Lee, Won-Myung) 백산학회 2009 白山學報 Vol.- No.83

This article studies A study of security of Nockdundoe(鹿屯島; down area of the Duman-River) and Lee-il(李鎰) of North commander(咸慶北道兵馬節度使) in the middle age of Chosun Dynasty. Take care of this study, First of all, writer took a system of military affairs and reform of military administration of the middle of Chosun-Dynasty. Accordingly this, we are capable of Limites of the Jin-guan System(鎭管體制; defence of 鎭管) and effective Campaign of defence(制勝方略) in the Jurchen area. And in the 16 century, Accordingly military service and reform bills of military adminstration of lee-li(李珥) and You-sung roung(柳成龍) we have confirmed inconsistency and limitation of defence system of Chosun Dynasty. Second of all, writer took Jurchen campaign of North commander of military Lee il(李鎰) and Nocdundoe(down area of the Duman-River). Third of all, took Life of Lee-il(李鎰) General of military and his activities the early days of Japanese invasions in 1592. Specially this 2, 3 chapter, writer took campaigns and activities Lee-il(李鎰) of North commander of military and Lee-il(李鎰) of General the early days of Japanese invasions in 1592. Accordingly this studies, writer requested truly-valuation of Lee-il(李鎰) of General the early days of Japanese invasions in 1592, and careful judge a person by true materials.

조선 成宗代 兀狄哈에 대하여

김순남 조선시대사학회 2009 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.49 No.-

Many Udige clans, such as those known to Koreans as the Kolgan, Holjaon, Nimageo, Namnul, Geojeol, and Oeulmigeo established relationships with Joseon during the reign of King Seongjong. Most of these resided in the Tumen River basin area around the six garrisons (yukjin). Onseong emerged as the main center for these Udige clans. While there were numerous groups within the Udige clan, each of which had a fierce character, the Nimageo Udige was by far the most powerful. During the reign of King Seongjong, the Udige clan was able to improve their economic conditions through the abduction of Chinese nationals. The Udige clan maintained higher economic standards of living than its brethren the Odoli and Wuliangha clans. The Udige clan produced various grains, which they then exchanged with other tribal clans for other goods. For most of the reign of King Seongjong, the Udige were involved in hostilities with the Odoli and Wuliangha clans, frictions that had begun during the days of King Sejong. In this instance, Joseon found itself having to provide economic aid to the defeated Odoli or Wuliangha, as well as to the Udige who actively cooperated with Joseon. Udige support for Joseon, which had for the most part involved the Kolgan clan, began to be expanded to include other Jurchen clans from the reign of King Seongjong onwards. In addition to the Kolgan and Holjaon, the Nimageo, Namnul, and Yeomjin, as well as Udige clans from other areas, also provided support for Joseon. The Joseon government granted members of the Udige clan who helped Joseon with a variety of awards and government posts, the importance of which were based on the nature of their achievements. The government actively sought to collect information pertaining to various Udige clans from those clan members who cooperated with Joseon. In many cases, these individuals voluntarily provided information about the current state of various other Udige clans to Joseon. The Udige not only travelled to Seoul to relay such information, but often did so in an on the spot manner. Udige visits to Seoul, as well as their defection to Joseon, were only authorized after lengthy discussions and consideration on the part of the relevant government officials. Whenever some doubt emerged as to the motivation for the defection of a Udige, the Joseon government insisted that they prove their sincerity through such means as bringing people who had previously been kidnapped by their clan with them to Joseon. During the reign of King Seongjong, the Udige clan also resorted to staging raids in Joseon whenever their demands were not accepted. Such Udige incursions were carried out on occasion, with the first such raid occurring during the early reign of King Seongjong when an Udige clan from the Jianzhou area crossed the border. Military officials who failed to appropriately respond to such Udige incursions were punished. While in some instances Udige encroachments into Joseon during the reign of King Seongjong were motivated by a desire to invade Joseon per se, in the majority of cases, the real target of such incursions was the Odoli tribe with whom they were engaged in hostilities. Joseon generally refrained from choosing sides in such battles, preferring instead to try and persuade both sides to put an end to hostilities. During the late period of the reign of King Seongjong, the Udige clan staged a series of raids in Joseon that were designed to inflict damage on the military officials and people of Joseon. The Udige continued to encroach on the territory of Joseon until the latter was able to successfully lay siege to its main base. As a result of the so-called 'Josanbo Incident' in October of the 22nd year of King Seongjong in which a number of Joseon military officials were killed in a raid by the Udige, the Joseon government implemented a military campaign which had as its ultimate goal the conquest of the most powerful Udige clan at the time, the Nimageo. However, despite this m... 본 연구는 조선 북방의 여진 종족중의 하나였던 성종대 올적합의 생활 실태와 조선에의 내조와 침구의 양상을 파악함으로써 조선 기미정책의 실상을 천착하고 나아가 세조대 이후에서 선조대에 이르는 시기의 여진 연구의 공백를 채우고자 하는 것이다.

조선전기 동북아의 정세와 전쟁

김경록 국방부군사편찬연구소 2019 군사 Vol.- No.110

In a country, war and peace are both contradictory and very closely related concepts as well. Joseon, which inherited political, social, and economic turmoil as a historical heritage at the end of the Goryeo, was established in 1392 and influenced by the international situation of changing Ming from Yuan(元明交替). Under the pluralistic international order, Goryeo had many times of war to influence the national destiny, and while taking full advantage of Goryeo's capabilities, it made strategic diplomatic relations by utilizing the change of international situation. However, after the founding, Joseon focused on the Ming central international order(明 中心 國際秩序) and ignored diplomatic and military alternatives. Of course, this has the advantage of limiting the external forces that invade Joseon from the North. Since Joseon dealt with the ruling class of North, it was punished in terms of border security. In the early days of the founding, Joseon faced internal confusion in the face of changes in international affairs, which were replaced by the Ming from the Yuan, as well as domestic political and military complexity. In addition, Joseon has implemented a fierce defense policy to secure security in the Ming central international order. During the peace period, Joseon could implement long-term and systematic defense policies, but the national policy, which was the national policy for the war, changed due to the initial confusion and the transformation of the international situation. In early Joseon period, the international situation was the decline of Mongolia, a northern nation, and the establishment of Ming Dynasty. In this process, the international situation changed suddenly due to the North Yuan forces of the Liaodong, the Mongol forces in the grassland, the Ruzhen in the northern part of the Korean peninsula. The changes in the international situation have caused frequent military conflicts around Joseon, resulting in massive wars. As a result, the Joseon changes in the defense policy and experience the Campaign against the Jurchen tribesmen(女眞征伐), Tsushima Subjugation(對馬島征伐), Japanese Riots in the Three Ports(三浦倭亂), Nitanggae Invasion(尼湯介亂), Imjin war(壬辰戰爭), Manchu War in 1636(丙子胡亂). 국가에 있어 전쟁과 평화는 상반되면서 동시에 매우 긴밀하게 연관된 개념이다. 고려말 정치, 사회, 경제적 혼란을 역사적 유산으로 물려받은 조선은 1392년 개국하면서 원명교체의 국제정세에 영향을 받아 전쟁에 대응하여 군사정책을 수립, 변화시켰다. 다원적인 국제질서하에서 격랑의 시대에 고려는 국운을 좌우할 전쟁을 여러차례 겪으면서 고려의 역량을 총동원하면서도 국제정세 변화를 활용하여 전략적 외교관계를 맺어 대응했다. 그러나 조선은 건국이후 명 중심 국제질서를 중시하여 외교, 군사적 대안을 무시하였다. 물론 이는 조선이 현실적으로 북방에서 침입하는 외부세력을 여진족으로 한정하는 이점이 있었고, 조선은 북방의 전쟁대상으로 조선의 통제가 가능한 여진족을 상대하였기에 대외정벌 보다 국경안정의 관점에서 토벌을 필요시 시행했다. 건국초기 조선은 국내의 정치, 군사적 복잡한 관련성 못지않게 원명교체라는 국제정세의 변화에 직면하여 내부의 혼란을 수습하면서 대외적으로 명 중심 국제질서에서 조선의 안보를 담보하기 위한 치열한 국방정책을 시행했다. 평화시기에 조선은 장기적이고 체계적인 국방정책을 시행할 수 있지만, 건국초기 혼란과 국제정세의 변혁으로 전쟁에 대한 국가정책인 국방정책이 변화했다. 조선전기 국제정세는 북방민족이었던 몽골의 쇠퇴와 한족의 명나라가 건국되면서 중국대륙에 명나라 중심 국제질서가 형성되었다. 이 과정에 요동의 북원세력, 초원지대의 몽골세력, 한반도 북부의 여진족, 전국시대의 혼란으로 인한 왜구의 준동 등이 발생하여 국제정세가 급변했다. 국제정세의 변화는 조선을 둘러싼 군사충돌이 빈번하여 대규모 전쟁이 발생하기도 했다. 그 결과로 조선은 국방정책의 수립, 변화를 경험하고, 여진정벌, 대마도정벌, 삼포왜란, 니탕개의 난, 임진전쟁, 병자호란 등 대외전쟁을 치렀다. 조선은 건국과 함께 명 중심 국제질서에 편입되어 국가의 안위를 확보하기 위해 명과 군사외교관계를 맺었다. 명나라의 국제정세에 대한 대응방식은 조선의 전쟁이란 군사위기와 밀접하게 연관되었다. 명나라의 몽골정벌은 몽골의 흥망성세에 영향을 미쳤으며, 그 영향으로 주변 여진족의 남하가 초래되었다. 여진족은 명나라 중심의 국제질서에 편입되면서 조선의 영향권에서 이탈하기 시작했다. 이는 조선과 여진족의 갈등을 초래하여 조선의 여진정벌이란 전쟁으로 이어졌다. 또한, 명 중심 국제질서에서 일본에 대한 교역금지는 왜구의 빈번한 침입을 초래하여 조선은 결국 대마도정벌을 단행하였다. 이후 조선과 일본 사이에 전쟁과 평화의 시기가 교차하면서 삼포왜란의 전쟁이 발생했다. 지속적인 왜구와 왜관을 중심으로 한 일본과의 관계에서 발생하는 군사충돌은 조선이 일본을 군사적으로 통제할 수 있다는 인식을 남겼으며, 이는 임진전쟁에 대한 조선의 소홀한 준비를 가져왔다.