인도 근대 미술의 여성상과 민족주의(Nationalism)의 성장

구하원 한국미술사학회 2009 美術史學硏究 Vol.262 No.262

새로운 사료와 시각을 도입한 심층 연구의 확산: 2014~2017 인도사 연구동향

구하원 역사학회 2018 역사학보 Vol.0 No.239

최근 인도사 연구는 양적으로 성장이 다소 주춤한 대신 다양한 사료를 이용하여 새로운 해석을 시도하는 등 질적으로 성장하고 있다. 이전 연구와 비교하였을 때 1차 사료의 범위가 상당히 넓어졌으며, 많은 연구가 탈식민주의 이론(Postcolonial theories)과 서벌턴 연구(Subaltern Studies) 이후 나타난 대안적 시각을 도입하고 있다. 본고에서는 2014년부터 2017년까지 4년간 출간된 국내 인도사 관련 연구를 논의한다. Ⅱ장에서는 영국의 식민통치와 근대화에 대한 연구를 영국 식민 정책 및 기관에 대한 저술과 인도인들의 저항 및 독립 운동으로 나누어 논의하였다. 몇몇 논문은 이미 널리 알려진 사건이나 소재에 대해 새로운 사료와 해석을 도입하여 인도 근대사에 새로운 시각을 제공한다. Ⅲ장에서는 식민통치와 민족주의에 대한 담론을 넘어서서 인도 근대사의 영역을 확장시키는 다양한 연구를 살펴보았다. 이 장에서는 여성과 피지배계층에 대한 연구뿐 아니라 문학과 사본학(寫本學) 등 사료가 확장됨을 논의하였다. 또한 한국-인도 교류사를 비판적으로 고찰할 필요성을 제기하였다. 마지막 에서는 현재 인도사 연구의 성과와 한계를 짚으며 앞으로 이를 더욱 활성화시키기 위한 방안을 제시하고자 하였다. While the growth of studies in Indian history in Korea has slowed down slightly during the past four years, it has also seen a rise of multi-layered studies based on new historical sources and perspectives. In comparison to earlier studies, the breadth of primary sources has expanded, and many studies have embraced alternative perspectives following the rise of Postcolonial theories and Subaltern Studies. This paper discusses four years’ research on Indian history in Korea, from 2014 to 2017. Chapter II examines writings on British colonial rule and the rise of modernity in India, of which several discuss well-known events or topics; with the use of new sources and perspectives, I suggest that they provide a new perspective to modern Indian history. Chapter III examines a variety of topics in India modern history, including studies on women and the subjugated classes, as well as the widening range of historical sources which now incorporate literary texts and manuscript studies. I also suggest the need for a critical examination of historical exchanges between India and Korea. The final chapter considers the achievements and limits of current historical research in Indian studies, with suggestions to enrich the field.

South Asian Art History Since the 1990s

구하원 한국외국어대학교 인도연구소 2009 남아시아연구 Vol.15 No.1

This article examines the trends found in South Asian art history since the 1990s. Based on a bibliography of South Asian art history compiled in 2003, it introduces the scope of South Asian art history from 1993 to 1998. Following a brief discussion of the formation of art history during the colonial period, it also aims to explain the limits inherent in the discipline. As a discipline seeking to fulfill a role within empirical history, art history has been utilized as a powerful tool in creating modernity, especially within the colonial context. However, recent trends in South Asian art history display new approaches. Firstly, we can find the enthusiastic embracing of multi‐disciplinary or interdisciplinary studies, including the adaptation of theories advanced in anthropology, ethnography, history, and literature. Secondly, subject matters that have been ignored within the traditional narrative of art history have been gathering more interest. Lastly, an interest in the modern and contemporary, which also leads to the subject of identity, has been arising in recent studies of South Asian art history. These trends reflect a broadening of topics in both period and media, as well as approaches within the discipline.

天聖令 田令과 賦役令의 사료적 가치와 역주

하원수(河元洙) 중국고중세사학회 2015 중국고중세사연구 Vol.36 No.-

지배자 모방하기 - 18세기 인도의 영국인 남성후원자 초상

구하원 한국근현대미술사학회(구 한국근대미술사학회) 2020 한국근현대미술사학 Vol.39 No.-

This paper examines the changes in portraits of British male patrons by Indian and European artists during the period of 1773 to 1805, when Calcutta was shifting from a “multiracial corporate city” to a “colonial city.” Portraits by Indian painters mostly follow the typical Mughal portrait, which symbolized kingship and authority of the depicted. However, as the Indian painters became regarded as craftsmen producing ‘Company style paintings’ in comparison to the European ‘artists’ during the late 18th century, in place of portraits, they were commissioned to paint animals and flowers, or typological paintings of occupations and castes, which ultimately aided in visualizing the classificatory systems of the empire. On the other hand, portraits of single persons by European artists emphasized the sitter’s social position or character as an ideal ruler, particularly towards an audience of the British living in India as well as Indians under their rule. Conversation pieces, which garnered much popularity in Calcutta during the late 18th century, depict the British family and its head, enjoying ‘English’ ways of life in spite of the exotic landscape and Indian servants surrounding them. These paintings also aimed to convince the audience of the metropole, as well as of India, of the ‘normality’ of the patrons’ lifestyles in India as well as their unique conditions as rulers of the land. Thus portraits of British male patrons during this period, and how they mimic their master(s), reflect the dramatic political, social, and cultural shift from cooperation to rule in India. 본 논문은 1773년부터 1805년 사이 인도의 캘커타가 “다인종 상업도시(multi racial-corporate city)”에서 “식민도시(colonial city)”로 변모하며 영국 식민통치의 성격이 크게 변화하던 시기에 인도와 영국의 화가들이 당시 영국인 남성 후원자를 그린 방식에 대해 분석하였다. 인도인 화가들이 남긴 영국 남성의 초상화는 대부분 전형적인 무굴 초상화 양식을 따르고 있어 강력한 왕권과 이에 기댄 후원자의 권력을 상징하였다. 그러나 인도인 화가들이 18세기말부터 ‘회사양식 회화’를 생산하는 장인으로 지위가 격하되면서 영국인의 초상보다 여러 직업이나 카스트 등 인도인의 다양한 유형을 그리며 제국의 분류체계를 시각화하는 역할을 하게 되었다. 이에 반해 유럽인 화가들이 남긴 초상화는 그 대상의 지위와 성향을 부각시키며 관객, 즉 인도인과 인도에 거주하는 영국인들에게 영국 통치가 지향하는 모습을 인식시키고자 하였다. 또한 18세기말 인도에서 특히 유행하였던 가족 초상화는 낯선 환경에서 인도인들에게 둘러싸여 있어도 영국적인 가정생활을 모방하며 영위하는 영국인 가장과 그 가족을 그리고 있다. 이런 회화는 인도뿐 아니라 본국의 관객도 염두에 두며 인도 생활의 정상성(normality)과 함께 인도를 지배하는 본인들의 특수한 상황도 부각하였다. 결국 인도에 대한 태도가 협조에서 지배로 빠르게 변화하였던 시기, 남성 후원자 초상의 변화로 영국 식민통치가 어떤 모습을 모방하며 지향하였는지 알수 있을 것이다.

唐前期 進士科와 明經科 급제자의 檢證

하원수(河元洙) 중국고중세사학회 2018 중국고중세사연구 Vol.49 No.-

인도 근대 미술의 여성상과 민족주의(Nationalism)의 성장: 바르마와 타고르의 회화를 중심으로

구하원 한국미술사학회 2009 美術史學硏究 Vol.262 No.262

The paintings of Raja Ravi Varma and Abanindranath Tagore, the two most influential South Asian artists of the late 19th and early 20th century, are usually considered to be contrasting examples of modern Indian art due to the disparate medium of their paintings or the distinct approaches found in contemporaneous and later reviews of their works. However, a striking similarity may be found between the two artists' depiction of female figures, with both artists appropriating literary and mythological figures dressed in traditional Indian garb. In this paper I argue that both artists contributed greatly to the construction of the traditional Indian woman as a visual icon, which later came to represent independent India. Varma's female figure, especially his Hindu goddesses, were received with great praise from Europeans as well as the South Asian elite. These figures of Hindu goddesses and literary heroines were replicated through the use of lithographs, and efficiently dispersed the notion of India as a monolithic, united entity. Tagore's female figure was based on Varma's notion of India as a woman; however Tagore and later artists of the Bengal School of Art rejected the overt sensuality and power of Varma's goddesses, choosing to emphasize the inner spirituality of the East. Unlike Varma's earlier paintings, which depicted a tableau of diverse women as the diverse aspects of India, his later Hindu goddess paintings were exclusively 'Hindu.' Tagore's paintings, based on the early 20th-century Hindu Nationalism of the Bengali elite, also visually rejected the participation of non-Hindus in the building of a new nation. However, Varma's Hindu goddess paintings and prints remain relevant to the contemporary world, as seen in millions of posters and popular art, due to the multiple connotations and nuances inherent in their production and analysis. On the other hand, Tagore's female figure, as seen in <Mother India (1905)>, no longer remains a visual icon, due to its fragmentary visual construction of the nation state. 19세기말과 20세기 초 인도에서 가장 영향력이 있었던 작가였던 바르마와 타고르의 회화는 이용하였던 재료나 후대의 평가에서 많은 차이를 볼 수 있다. 그러나 이들의 여성상을 살펴보았을 때 둘 다 인도 문학과 신화에서 고른 소재와 전통의상을 입은 여성으로 표현하고 있다는 공통점을 찾을 수 있다. 이 논문은 바르마와 타고르의 대표적인 작품에 나타난 여성상을 살펴보며 이러한 여성상이 독립 인도의 이상적인 모습을 시각적으로 구축하는데 큰 영향을 끼쳤음을 보여주고자 한다. 바르마의 여성상, 특히 힌두 여신의 표현은 유럽인들과 인도인 엘리트 계층에게 전반적인 호평을 받았다. 이러한 여성상은 석판화라는 매체를 통하여 인도 전역의 대중에게 널리 전파되면서 인도라고 하는 근대적인 통일 국가의 개념을 힌두 여성으로 표현한 선례를 남겼다. 이를 바탕으로 타고르는 당시 민족주의적 염원을 반영한 작품 <어머니 인도>에서 전통적이면서 서구 문명에 물들지 않은 ‘인도’의 내면적인 정신세계를 표현하고자 하였다. 다양한 여성상을 표현하다가 힌두 여신의 모습으로 인도를 형상화하였던 바르마의 초기 작품들과 달리 후기의 힌두 여신상이나 타고르의 여성상은 힌두교도들 외에 인도를 구성하는 이들을 배제한 것이었다. 이 중에서 바르마의 힌두 여성상은 다양한 해석의 가능성과 뉘앙스를 지님으로써 오늘날까지 대중문화 및 미술 전반에 큰 영향을 끼치고 있으나 이와 달리 힌두 민족주의를 단편적으로 표현한 데 그친 타고르의 여성상은 상대적으로 찾기 힘든 것이 되었다.

하원수, 『과거제도 형성사』(서울, 성균관대학교출판부, 2021)의 소개와 논평 및 답변

하원수(Ha, Wonsoo),김종섭(Kim, Jongseob),최재영(Choi, Jaeyoung) 서울대학교 동아문화연구소 2023 東亞文化 Vol.60 No.-

19세기 인도 자이나교 사원 건축의 변천과 그 원인 : 샤뜨룬자야의 모띠샤 뚱크를 중심으로

구하원 미술사와 시각문화학회 2007 미술사와 시각문화 Vol.6 No.-

Satrufijaya, located in Gujarat, India, is one of the most important pilgrimage sites for Svetambara Murtpujak Jains, who comprise the majority of Jains in western India. The summit of Satrunjaya hill is covered with more than 800 temples including the main temple dedicated to Adisvara, the first of 24 Jinas, or teachers, of Jainism. However, in spite of the alleged antiquity of the site, most of the temples were built only during the 19th century. This was contemporaneous with a series of court cases regarding the ownership of the site between the Jains and the Hindu rulers of the surrounding area, This paper examines the architecture and patronage of the 19th-centu-ry temples at Satrunjaya, focusing on Mot1siiry Tunk, one of the latest temple complexes built at the site. Architecturally, the temples of Motisah Tunk provide an exemplar of 19th-century Jain temple architecture, Compared with earlier Jain temples built in the Western Indian Style, or Maru-Gurjara Style, the large central courtyard, multiple subsidiary temples, powerful outer walls, as well as eclectic sculptural and decorative elements of Motisah Tunk are indicative of significant changes within the Jain communi-ty. Motisah Tunk was built by Motisah, a merchant from Bombay (Mum-bai) who had gained an enormous amount of wealth from opium export during the early 19th century, While patronage of temples and religious events served as an established means of acquiring merit for Jain lay peo-pie, this also provided the patron with financial stability, or credit (sakb), among fellow merchants, which was crucial during the pre-modern era, This essay argues that the architecture of Motisah Tunk represents the patrons' desire to sustain the mode of traditional credit-building under British colonial rule. However, this did not stop the patrons from incorpo-rating western or non-traditional architectural elements, which served to enhance the religious experience of the worshiper, This paper also explores the dichotomy in South Asian art history, which has consequently relegated the study of 19th-century religious monuments to a scholarly periphery. The colonially constructed (and later widely accepted) notion of India as an ancient, religious society that only became “modern" with its encounter with the West, has led to studies that focus either on pre-modern, "traditional" art, or on the other hand, modern, “Westem-style” art. As a result, Motisah Tunk, a modem monument with a pre-modern function (as a religious structure) and traditional style, has remained in relative obscurity, Nevertheless, the acknowledgement of this dichotomy and its constructed nature are imperative to the understanding of the temples as well as their patrons who reconstructed a modern religious community during the 19th century in South Asia.

또 다른 타자(他者) 읽기: 남아시아 근현대 미술의 이해

구하원 미술사와 시각문화학회 2012 미술사와 시각문화 Vol.11 No.-

2000년대 이후 국내미술계에서는 남아시아 근 현대미술에 대한 관심이 크게 늘었으나 이에 대한 학문적 논의는 거의 부재하였다. 남아시아 근 현대미술에 대한 이해는 미술사라는 근대적인 학문와 영국의 식민통치로 인해 다양한 문제를 내포하고 있는데 근 현대의 기점을 잡는 문제부터 근대(modern)와 모더니즘(modernism), 모더니티(modernity), 식민주의(colonialism), 탈식민성(postcoloniality) 등 개념을 정립하는데 일어나는 어려움, 그리고 작품과 작가의 해석에서 피할 수 없는 서구중심적인 사고를 들 수 있다. 이 논문은 남아시아 근 현대미술의 이해를 위해 이러한 문제와 용어를 정리하며 빠르타 미떠(Partha Mitter)와 기따 까뿌르(Geeta Kapur)등 대표적인 학자 2인이 이를 해결하고자 한 방식을 살펴보고자 한다. This paper examines the study of modern and contemporary South Asian art, which has been gaining much interest but not much academic studies in Korea. As an introductory essay to the subject matter, I have laid out the theoretical problems inherent in the studies of modern and contemporary South Asian art. Many studies have stated that most of these problems stem from the origins of art history as a modern discipline as well as the history of South Asia as a colonial space. Together with the colonial census, studies of languages and religions, law, and histories, South Asian art history progressed as a colonial project aimed to enhance classificatory governmentality. As a result, there has been much confusion in the definition of periods (when does the "modern" start and end in South Asia?), the terms used in studies of the period (modern, modernity, colonialism, nationalism, postcoloniality), and the interpretation of South Asian works from this period. The second part of the paper focuses on the ideas of modernity, modernism, colonialism, and postcoloniality. However, as concepts within a clearly Western epistemological framework based on the Western historical experience dating back to the Enlightenment, there rises a need to translate such terms when used in the context of South Asian history or art histories of any non-Euroamerican entity. Furthermore, contrary to the notion that the West/ metropole had sole possession of modernity as a phenomenon, scholars have argued that the production of modernity was closely related and dependent upon colonialism or the control of the colony. However, Modernism, as an artistic movement and form of resistance to the patriarchal and bourgeois art of Europe, also provided a means of opposition against colonial rule and Western domination to non-Western artists. This was ultimately accepted and adapted within the multiple facets of nationalism. On the other hand, postcoloniality arose out of a rejection of Eurocentric viewpoints; by describing the historical, political, cultural and epistemological conditions produced by and through the historical experience of colonialism, postcoloniality is defined as not a temporal period, but rather a rejection of the "lack" or "inadequacy" of the Other. The final part of the paper discusses two figures central to the history of modern and contemporary South Asian art. Art historian Partha Mitter and contemporary art critique Geeta Kapur have been most active in defining and critiquing approaches towards modern and contemporary South Asian art. However, while art historian Partha Mitter agrees that the “Picasso Manque Syndrome” is caused by an asymmetrical production of power, he also believes that a genuine loosening of the canon and of the teleological linearity of art history would lead to a global and universal art history. On the other hand, art critique Geeta Kapoor argues that achieving an "internationalism" or Western-based modernism is truly unobtainable, as third-world countries like India cannot avoid the collision between nationalism and internationalism. As non-Western but non-South Asian scholars of modern and contemporary South Asian art, it would be most beneficial to consider the arguments of Mitter and Kapur when positioning oneself in the discipline.