종교다원주의의 ‘궁극적 실재’개념 연구 -존 힉(John Hick)의 논의를 중심으로-

김창현 동서대학교 일본연구센터 2009 次世代 人文社會硏究 Vol.5 No.-

Religious pluralists insist that it is possible to accomplish the mutual respect and peaceful coexistence by means of interreligious dialogue. The prominent pluralist, John Hick, suggests the Ultimate Reality as a hypothesis and common ground for dialogue. In this regard, Hick summons religious traditions and subsumes them with respect to the Ultimate Reality. In this paper, I assert that the Ultimate Reality which Hick proposes is a means not for dialogue, but for a monologue so that it can be the strategy of the subject. I first criticize the Ultimate Reality as derived from Wittgenstein’s family-resemblance. And then limits of Hick’s definition of religion comparing it with Durkheim’s are presented. Finally, I claim that Hick’s Ultimate Reality itself is neither ‘ultimate’ nor ‘real’. I conclude with the intention that Hick’s Ultimate Reality as a hypothesis for interreligious dialogue includes covert oppression and entails a potential for violence.

종교다원주의의 ``궁극적 실재``개념 연구 -존 힉(John Hick)의 논의를 중심으로-

김창현 동서대학교 일본연구센터 2009 次世代 人文社會硏究 Vol.5 No.-

Religious pluralists insist that it is possible to accomplish the mutual respect and peaceful coexistence by means of interreligious dialogue. The prominent pluralist, John Hick, suggests the Ultimate Reality as a hypothesis and common ground for dialogue. In this regard, Hick summons religious traditions and subsumes them with respect to the Ultimate Reality. In this paper, I assert that the Ultimate Reality which Hick proposes is a means not for dialogue, but for a monologue so that it can be the strategy of the subject. I first criticize the Ultimate Reality as derived from Wittgenstein`s family-resemblance. And then limits of Hick`s definition of religion comparing it with Durkheim`s are presented. Finally, I claim that Hick`s Ultimate Reality itself is neither ``ultimate`` nor ``real``. I conclude with the intention that Hick`s Ultimate Reality as a hypothesis for interreligious dialogue includes covert oppression and entails a potential for violence.

현대 과정 종교철학의 흐름과 화이트헤드 철학의 전망

장왕식 ( Wang Shik Jang ) 한국화이트헤드학회 2006 화이트헤드 연구 Vol.12 No.-

창조성을 궁극자로 보는 화이트헤드의 과정 형이상학은 세 가지 도전에 직면해 왔다. 그 하나는 신을 궁극자로 보는 서구의 전통 형이상학의 도전이며, 다른 하나는 최근의 카오스 이론에 입각한 자연과학과 해체주의에 입각한 현대 서구 철학의 도전이며, 마지막으로는 비실재론적 무와 공의 철학에 입각한 동아시아 종교철학의 도전이다. 비록 이렇게 다양하고 새로운 도전들에 직면하고 있더라도, 우리가 보아 왔듯이 화이트헤드의 과정 종교철학은 이런 도전들을 하나로 아우르면서도 동시에 자기 자신의 체계를 훼손하지 않을 수 있는 하나의 탄탄한 형이상학적 체계를 갖추고 있다. 나는 그렇게 해석될 수 있는 실마리를 화이트헤드의 미학적 우주론, 즉 미를 최고의 가치론적 궁극자로 설정하는 그의 문명론에서 찾고자 하였다. 물론 화이트헤드철학의 공식 체계 내에 미는 궁극적 설명의 범주에 들어가지는 않는다. 이미 말한 바대로 화이트헤드 내에서, 미는 그저 가치론적으로 설정된 궁극적인 목표일뿐 모든 특수적 사태들을 설명해 내는 일반적 원리는 아니기 때문이다. 화이트헤드 체계 내에서 이런 일반적은 원리로 기능하는 궁극자는 창조성이다. 하지만 미가 가치론적으로 하나의 궁극적일 역할을 담당할 수 있다는 화이트헤드의 가정은 오늘날 우리가 직면하고 있는 수많은 현대의 종교철학적 난제들을 해결할 수 있는 실마리를 제공할 수 있다. As far as a Whiteheadian philosophy of religion regards creativity as ultimate reality, it is faced with two challenges at least. A challenge is from the traditional philosophy of religion in the West that construes God to be an ultimate reality. The other challenge is from a contemporary philosophy of religion in the East that construes nothingness or emptiness to be an ultimate. Although these challenges are so phenomenal as to be threatening to Whitehead`s philosophical system, I believe that a Whiteheadian philosophy of religion has a framework in which while it can incorporate these ultimates into its system of thought, it does not have to result in any damage to its own metaphysical system. The purpose of this paper is to show how an aesthetic interpretation of Whitehead`s philosophy can be successful in incorporating God and Emptiness into its own metaphysical system, without losing the peculiar doctrine of ultimate reality in which creativity is regarded as the ultimate reality. My thesis is that although it goes without saying that creativity is the only ultimate reality in Whitehead`s philosophy, it does not do away with the possibility of interpretation in which both God and Emptiness can be construed as an ultimate. I believe such an interpretation is to be made possible when we rely on Whitehead`s theory of civilization where the production of Beauty is said to be the teleology of our universe. My argument is that Beauty is to be regarded as an axiological ultimate toward which the teleology of the Universe is oriented. Furthermore, while both God and Emptiness are considered to be an ultimate in Whitehead`s system, Creativity is still the only explanatory item by means of which all the entities of the Universe, including God and Emptiness can be explained.

바비야(Bhavya) 추론식의 특징

우형은(Woo Hyung Eun) 한국불교연구원 2016 불교연구 Vol.45 No.-

바비야(Bhavya)는 자립논증파의 개조로 그의 시대(CE 500-570)는 이미 인도철학의 여러 학파들이 급속한 성장을 했다. 각 학파의 주요 경전이 성립 되었으며, 주요 저서의 주석이 쓰여 졌다. 불교 내부적으로는 유식학파가 성립되었고 디그나가(480-540C E)에 의해 불교 논리학파가 성립되었다. 바비야는 이러한 시대의 흐름에 맞춰 현상계의 논리가 중관학파에서 말하는 궁극적 진리의 관점에서도 사용할 수 있는 방식을 새롭게 고안하게 된다. 그는 주장 명제에 ‘궁극적 진리의 관점에서(paramārthataḥ)’라는 수식어를 붙임으로서 인명학의 추론식을 그대로 사용할 때 발생할 수 있는 오류에서 벗어날 수 있다고 믿었다. 그러나 세속의 영역에 속하는 판단과 승의제에 속하는 술어와의 관계에 대한 근본적인 문제를 어떻게 해결할 수 있는가라는 문제가 여전히 남아 있었다. 이에 대해 바비야는 승의제를 둘로 나눔으로써 이와 같은 문제를 해결할 수 있다고 생각했다. 바비야의 추론식에 사용되는 수식어 ‘궁극적 진리의 관점에서’는 언어로 명확하게 기술될 수 있는 승의제(paryāyaparamārtha)로 모든 지성을 초월해 있는 것이 아니다. 명확하게 기술될 수 없는 승의제(aparyāyaparamārtha)는 추론의 대상이 아니다. 바비야는 주장의 오류에 대해 (1) 자어상위 (2) 현량상위 (3) 세간상위의 세 가지 예를 들어 반론을 제기한 후 주장명제에 사용한 “궁극적 진리의 관점에서”, 라는 수식어와 이제설로 반론을 논파한다. 논적이 주장하는 이유와 실례의 오류에 대해 지속적으로 세간의 상식에 따라 표현한다고 말한다. 즉, 그는 단순히 세속제를 받아들이고 있어서 오류가 아니라는 것이다. 왜냐하면 바비야에 따르면, 현상계는 완전히 비실재하는 것이 아니라 그것은 드러난 만큼 실재하는 것(kun rdzob ji ltar snang ba yin)이기 때문이다. Bhavya was the founder of the svātantrika tradition of Madhyamaka school of Buddhism. In his lifetime(CE 500-570), India was dominated by attitude of scholars to debate for defence of their own schools of theory. In the history of Buddhism Dignāga established new formal logic and after this most of the schools followed his three types of formal logic. Bhavya also adopted this tendency of inclination and tried to prove his Madhyamic philosophical thought by using logic. But if he uses Buddhist logic without change then it opposes the position of Madhyamaka who do not have proposition. Hence he formulated specific character of logic which is not opposed to the standpoint of Madhyamaka and does not fall into the logical fallacy. He tried to establishing the new illogical methodology of the Madhyamaka. Bhavya added the qualification in ultimate reality in his proposition(pratijñā). Bhavya divided the ultimate as the ultimate which can be express by word and the ultimate which cannot be express by word. In fact Bhavya interpreted ultimate truth not as ultimate truth itself but as knowledge of ultimate truth. By using this qualification Bhavya did not failed to answer some objections given by others. When the opponent pointed out three kinds of fallacious pakṣa i.e., svavacanaviruddha, pratyakṣaviruddha, lokaviruddha, Bhavya says that there is no contradiction with our position. The reason because we make a qualification to our pakṣa. by saying in ultimate reality. And the opponent pointed out some kinds of fallacious hetu Bhavya s answer is very simple that is we accepted the thing in conventionally. Bhavya accept the conventional truth at least logically. For him conventional truth is just as it appears.

A Study on T`oegye(退溪) Yi Hwang(李滉): Ultimate Concern and Ultimate Reality of Chosun Confucianism

( Lee Kwang Ho ) 성균관대학교 유교문화연구소 2010 儒敎文化硏究(中文版) Vol.0 No.13

朝鮮是以儒敎看作是政治、敎育的理念的儒敎國家, 而儒敎國家又是國王與士大夫根据民本主義理念來治理國家、從而實現王道政治理想的國家。王道政治根据儒敎的政治理念與敎育理念, 提倡具有德性的君主與士大夫一同治理政治。包括朝鮮儒學在內, 儒學首先關注的是道德, 而對于道德的疑問又引出更加根本的問題, 卽道德的根源――天的問題。在儒學看來, 道德意味着人類在相互關系中實現上天所賦予人類的本性。 退溪李滉是朝鮮最具代表性的新儒學者, 他對韓國新儒學進行體系化, 通過儒學理論的實踐, 爲揭示聖人之道而作出努力。本稿主要從如下幾個方面闡述他的哲學。 1.他的學問是爲己之學。 2.爲己之學就是心學。 3.理是永恒的眞理。 4.以體用爲中心, 將理學的心學體系化。 退溪李滉的終極關心就在于通過個人的人格修養成爲聖人。如果无法認識和實踐終極的實在理, 那么人格的修養也就不可能實現。他的學問通過對內在終極的實在理的認識和實踐, 明確闡明聖人之道。心由體用兩方面構成, 他的學問也主要從體用兩個方面進行考察。 隨着科學的發展, 我們生活在一個包括人類在內, 所有的生命都受到威脅的時代里, 而且如同生命般重要的水和空氣受到嚴重汚染, 各個國家、個人之間的競爭與不信任還威脅到人類共同體的生存。在這種年代里, 如果存在一種思想, 它可以通過自身修養將自己的生活轉變成善的生活, 還將他人的生活改變成善的生活, 那么這種思想卽使與科學相背離, 我們能舍棄其思想? 我們生活在一個人類主體性沦落爲工具主體的時代里, 在這一時代里, 連准確把握人類主體性的途徑也都被堵住。李滉的哲學向我們解釋人類的本心和宇宙與生命創造之眞理。在以現象的分析和綜合作爲學問方法的科學來說, 根本无法找到可以到達超過現象界的、將現象變爲可能性的主體性與眞理。退溪則通過對人類內在心性的考察與體驗, 說明可以將現象世界與超越世界統一的原理。李滉哲學給我們所傳達的信息可謂非常重大。 Chosun Dynasty was a Confucian state-the state whose political and educational ideology was Confucianism. The Confucian State seeks to realize the ideal of ‘Kingly Government’ (王道政治, Wangdochongch'i), in which the king and sadaebu (士大夫; aristocrats or a literati class) rule the nation in accordance with the will of the people as the very foundation of the nation. ‘Kingly Government’ refers to a political system, in which the king as a man of virtue governs the nation under the principle of morality (道德) with the help of sadaebu who are, both academically and ideologically, committed to Confucianism. The first and foremost concern of Confucianism including the Chosun Confucianism is “What is morality?” This question leads to another more fundamental one: “What is Heaven as the ultimate reality?” It is because morality in Confucianism is a way in which the human nature endowed by Heaven is actualized within human relationships. T'oegye Yi Hwang was a representative neo-Confucian scholar in Chosun Dynasty, who systemized Korean neo-Confucianism and attempted to reach the realm of the sage by putting its ideals into practices. 1. His Learning is the study for the sake of self (为己之学) 2. The study for the sake of self is directly Simhak (心学: Study of the mind-andheart) 3. Li (理, Principle) is the Truth of eternal immortality 4. Simhak (心学) in the dimension of lihak (理学: Study of the Principle) is systematized centering on Substance-Function (体用) The ultimate interest in T'oegye (退溪) Yi Hwang (李滉) was to be equipped with the saint's personality through personal cultivation in self. This interest couldn't be realized without truly knowing li (理), which is the ultimate reality. His theory of study is clearly explaining a method of becoming a saint by recognizing and practicing Li (理), which is the ultimate reality, based on lihak in the position of Simhak based on the theory of substance-function. Due to the development in science, the world of animals other than a human being is all threatened. Air and water, which are as important as life itself, are being contaminated as a whole. And, due to competition and distrust between nation and nation & between individual and individual, the number of people, who can make a comfortable life, is getting rapidly reduced. If there are the thought and method in this period that personal cultivation leads to changing own life into extremely good life, and that such personal cultivation allows neighbors to be comfortable, and further all the mankind to be comfortable, will this thought be able to be unconcerned for a reason of being not suitable for science? We are living in the era of human being's subjectivity fallen into the instrumental nationality, not knowing how to approach human being's subjectivity. In this era Yi Hwang's study can offer a method of newly illuminating what the subjectivity and rationality are. There is no way to approach the eternal world and the absolute world that cannot be approached with science, which is the study of just analyzing and synthesizing the individualized phenomenon. Yi Hwang shows the universal validity by connecting the transcendental world with the phenomenal world based on a human being's inner world. The message, which Yi Hwang's study gives to today's philosophy, is powerful. [Article in Chinese]

Creative Dialogue on Ultimate Reality

김주한 한국민중신학회 2010 Madang: Journal of Contextual Theology Vol.0 No.13

The purpose of this paper is an attempt to make creative dialogue in Korean society where there are intermingles of various religions. In order to carry out this task, I will employ John Hick’s pluralistic hypothesis. I argue that before entering into interreligious dialogue, we should examine the nature of Ultimate Reality. On the agreed understanding of the Ultimate Reality, I am sure, we can make creative dialogue. I will try to make point of contact of Christian God to the concept of Hannim, the expression of the Ultimate Reality experienced and perceived in the Korean traditional religious-cultural context. The paper demonstrates that whether such revision of ‘theo-logy’ is possible in the cultural and spiritual setting of Korea. Here the work of Hick is supported and supplemented by suggesting that Hannim would be a different manifestation of the Real. Consequently, this paper states that each religion, and more specifically each religious community, must e faced on its own distinctive terms and within its immediate cultural environment.

Mahayana Buddhist (漢字圈 大乘佛敎) View of the Ultimate Reality (窮極的 現實) in Literature (文學) and Film (映畫)

Jae-seong Lee 세계한자학회 2020 世界漢字硏究 Vol.3 No.1

The topics addressed, scope, and approach of this paper involve contemporary postmodern/poststructural critical theory, literary criticism in particular, and Mahayana (大乘)—especially kongan (公案) and hwadu (話頭) Ch’an(Chinese)/Seon(Korean)/Zen (Japanese)—Buddhist thought (佛敎思想) is explained in detail. However, the theoretical ground is only to help the twenty-first century audience to deeply comprehend how literature and film offer us precious opportunity to experience the sublime (崇古)—aesthetic sensibility (美的感覺), through which we glimpse (一見) the ultimate reality (窮極的 現實). It is time now that intellectual (philosophical, critical, academic) explanation and spiritual experience are brought to work together in the common area, literature (文學) and film (映畫). It is important for literary readers to experience someone’s life story in the way of encountering the non-duality (非二重性) of the ultimate reality.

Dasan’s Approach to the Ultimate Reality

유권종 한국학중앙연구원 한국학중앙연구원 2013 Korea Journal Vol.53 No.2

This study aims to provide a more balanced approach to Dasan Jeong Yak-yong’s understanding of Sangje (Lord on High) as the ultimate reality by integrating the existing conflicting theories on Sangje in Dasan’s tenets of Confucianism. It also attempts to make the best use of various views posited in previous studies, with an analytic focus on Dasan’s personal reasons for placing the concept of Sangje at the core of his Confucian theoretical system. Research on a scholar should first deal with their formation of thought and background as an individual, and thus the content and direction of Dasan’s thought, the context of his life that influenced his problem awareness and his thinking, and the mode of thinking embodied in him through his life experiences are included in the scope of this analysis. In particular, this article examines the transformation of the Confucian system Dasan sought through his concept of Sangje, the background of the formation of his view on Sangje, his conception of Sangje, the direction of his thought, and the significance of his approach to the ultimate reality.

초월적 실재로서의 일심(一心) - 윌프레드 캔트웰 스미스의 불교관에 비추어본 대승기신론 이해

류제동(Ryu Jei-dong) 불교학연구회 2004 불교학연구 Vol.9 No.-

  This dissertation purports to attempt a reinterpretation of The Awakening of Faith attributed to A?vaghosha, which is appreciated among many modern Buddhist scholars as the Mahayana scripture comparable to the Synoptic Gospels, against Wilfred Cantwell Smith"s View of Christianity and Buddhism.<BR>  We are to understand The Awakening of Faith as a scripture where the One Mind as Mahayana awakens faith in human beings. In this scripture, Dharma as Mahayana appears as One Mind in the form of Tath?gata Garbha within the sentient beings. One Mind is the ultimate reality which induces the sentient beings to the insight of transcendence beyond the secular world and to the practical response toward the transcendent reality. In such a sense, One Mind is rightfully comparable to the Christian concept of God as the ultimate and transcendent reality.

The Inherent Characters of the Human Mind As the Defining Characteristic of Human Beings in Wang Yang-ming’s Thinking Way -Focused upon a Holistic Unity of Ultimacy, Potency and Primacy

( Kim Yon-jae ) 성균관대학교 유교문화연구소 2010 儒敎文化硏究(中文版) Vol.0 No.14

本稿主要分析心的內在本質, 從而分考察人心成爲人類存在的特点的過程。在程朱學、陸王學等新儒學的世界觀里設定出終極實在的指定性, 將與此的協調和統一視作是自我實現的最高目標。尤其是王陽明在闡明人類修養的本質方面很好體現了這一点。他的良知本質、致良知的實現、知行合一原則等都在人類修養的本質如何歸爲人心的問題上構成形而上學的基礎。本稿認爲人心存在三種特点, 卽心的終極性、潛在性以及本源性。以上三種是人心的三種方面, 它們之間的統一性創造性地得到組合, 很有活力地得到發揮, 在闡明心的本體與其實踐之間的具體關系方面構成基礎。具體來說, 人心與終極實在成爲一體, 在這種存在論方面具有終極性;人心又總是向自我實現的具體過程敞開着, 在實存方面具有潛在性;人心在整體體現人類本性方面又發揮着創造性的作用, 在統合方面具有本源性。其中, 人心的本源性還以終極性與潛在性之間有活力的統一作爲基礎。在這種意義上“致良知”包含着心的創造性與具體實踐領域的內容。 This essay is focused upon identifying the essential characters inherent in the human mind and thereby how the mind can be referred to as defining characteristic of a human being. Within the Confucian world-view emphasizing self-realization toward Ultimate Reality, the human mind has metaphysical significance in the threefold aspect of a dynamic unity constitutive of creativity: ultimacy, potency, and primacy. The mind is characterized by ultimacy in the ontological sense of being identical with the original substance of being which is in harmony with the Ultimate Reality. The mind is characterized by potency in the existential sense of its being open to the concrete process of self-realization. And the mind is characterized by primacy in the integral sense of revealing its creative status in the complete manifestation of humanity, which results from the point of view of the dynamic unity of ultimacy and potency. Particularly, the primacy of mind is characteristic of the human mind as heart-mind. In the case of Wang Yang-ming, the inherent characteristics of the mind have a constitutive status in fulfilling its innate knowledge of goodness, that is, what is called zhi-liang-zhi in Chinese characters. The threefold aspect of ultimacy, potency, and primacy inherent in the human mind seems to provide a basis for elucidating the creative relationship between the original substance of the mind, which is “the innate knowledge of goodness” (liang-zhi), and its practical efforts which are realizable in the dynamic unity of equilibrium and harmony (zhong-he) and the total substance and great function (quan-ti-da-yong). The mind as the innate knowledge of goodness can be cultivated, and thus, by eliminating selfish desires, it may reach a state where, as ultimate reality, it functions creatively and where all things can be identical with the mind. The mind has an internal identity as a meaningful entity, and, on the other hand, makes internal decisions for self-transformation. It is here that a human mind has a character of primacy. The mind attaches primacy to a creative agency presiding in the mutual relationship between an integral part of the original substance and integral part of its practical efforts. This characteristic gives significance to the human mind as heart-mind. It seems that the human mind constitutes a dynamic integrality of the unity in creativity and creativity in unity. In terms of the primacy of mind in self-realization, the mind has a character of ultimacy in sustaining the original substance as the ground of self-realization, while it has a character of potency in making practical efforts as the concrete process of self-realization. [Article in Chinese]