무왕(武王, 1738-1765) 시기 메콩 델타에서의 영토 확장 추이: 제국으로 가는 길, `잠식지계(蠶食之計)`와 `이만공만(以蠻攻蠻)`의 변주

최병욱 ( Choi Byung Wook ) 한국동남아학회 2017 동남아시아연구 Vol.27 No.2

베트남이 메콩 델타로 영토를 팽창하는 역사 속에서 완거정은 두개의 얼굴을 갖는다. 하나는 현재 베트남 영토 내에 있는 메콩 델타거의 전부를 획득하는 데서 그의 공헌이다. 또 하나는 베트남 역사를 읽는 독자들의 눈을 현재의 베트남 영역에만 머물게 하는 그의 역할이다. 독자들에게 완거정의 메콩 델타 획득은 베트남 남진사의 마지막 단계로 인식된다. 그러나 완거정의 업적은 부분적이었을 뿐이다. 이 연구는 메콩 델타에서의 영토 팽창 추이에서 완거정 보다 무왕에 주목한다. 무왕의 목표는 완거정의 공헌에 의해 성취된 영토 획득보다 더 야심적이었다. 그리고 이 야심은 새로운 세계, 새로운 국제질서를 건설한다는 그의 꿈에 의해 추동된 것이며, 그가 건설한 수도푸쑤언은 이 새 국제 질서의 중심지였다. 여기서 그는 황제가 되기를 희망했다. 주장을 입증하기 위해서 필자는 세 가지의 요소를 검토하고 있다. 첫째는 무왕 왕권의 성격이다. 두 번째는 메콩 델타에서의 군사 작전을 위한 준비 과정이다. 셋째는 새로이 무왕의 판도로 편입된 땅의 성격에 대한 것이다. 북부 홍하 델타에 근거한 레 황실의 신하를 자처하던 선대 지배자들의 태도와 결별하면서 무왕은 즉위한 지 6년 뒤인 1744년 자신이 왕임을 선포했다. 행정 조직이 개편되었고 의복과 풍속도 북부의 것을 버리고 남국의 것을 제정하였다. 무왕은 캄보디아, 참파, 수사, 화사, 만상, 남장 등 조공국도 충분히 확보했다. 레 왕조와 비교해 이 조공국의 숫자는 더 많았으며 19세기 대남 제국의 조공국 수와 맞먹었다. 필자는 이 시점에서 무왕이 실제로 원했던 자리는 왕이 아니라 황제였음을 지적한다. 비록 무왕의 시도는 실패했지만 그는 자신을 천왕이라고 칭함으로써 통상적인 왕은 아님을 분명히 했다. 캄보디아 왕이 캄보디아 영토 내의 참족을 공격한 게 무왕에게는 캄보디아에 개입하는 충분한 이유로 작용했다. 무왕은 이 참족이 자신의 신복이라 여겼다. 왕은 그들이 자신의 판도 내에 있는 참 즉 순성진 참인의 일부라고 간주했기 때문이다. 무왕은 1750년에 캄보디아에 전쟁을 선포했다. 동시에 그는 태국왕에게 외교 서한을 보냈는데 여기서 그는 캄보디아가 자신의 배타적 조공국임을 천명했다. 캄보디아의 영토였던 메콩 델타에의 공격을 개시하기 전에 무왕은 푸쑤언을 새로 건설해 제국의 위상에 걸맞는 권력중심지로 삼았다. 인플레이션, 기근, 경제 왜곡 등도 이 시기를 특징짓는 면모였다. 그러나 이 연구는 무왕의 메콩 델타 진출 이유라고 이야기되어 온 이런 경제적인 측면보다 제국 건설자로서 무왕이 보이던 적극적 정책에 더 관심을 가지며 이런 정책에 기초한 영토 팽창의 욕구가 메콩 델타의 광활한 땅을 차지하고자 하는 데 결정적인 이유가 되었다고 주장한다. 1754년부터 3년 동안 현재 베트남의 영토에 해당하는 메콩 델타대부분이 무왕의 영토로 편입되었다. 여기에는 완거정의 역할이 컸다. 그러나 무왕이 차지하고자 한 영역의 범주는 여기에 더해 메콩 오른편에 해당하며 현재의 사이공보다 위쪽에 있는 껌뽕짬, 프레이비엥, 스바이리엥을 포괄했다. 많아진 조공국의 수에 걸맞게 제국의 영토는 넉넉히 확대되어야 했다. 무왕의 전략은 `잠식지계`와 `이만공만`의 변주곡이었다고 이 글은 주장한다. 무왕은 하부캄보디아에 해당하는 델타를 야금야금 차지했다. 이는 누에가 뽕잎을 먹는 것과 같다는 게 일반적인 이해 방식이다. 그러나 무왕의 최종적 목표는 위에서 언급한 메콩 델타 세개의 주까지 다 먹어치우는 것이었다. `다 먹어치운다`는 건 `잠식`의 또 다른 의미이자 적용이었다. 무왕은 현 롱안 지역으로부터 쩌우독에 이르기까지의 땅을 차지하는 과정에서 참인을 이용해 캄보디아를 쳤다. 이것은 `이만공만`의 표준적 적용이었다. 이에 더해 그는 막씨가 관할하던 중국인 망명자들을 이용해 하띠엔과 그 주변 지역을 캄보디아 왕으로부터 취했다. `이만공만`의 또다른 적용이라고 할 수 있다. 결론적으로, 필자는 19세기에 출현할 응우옌 왕조의 제국 질서 뿌리를 바라보는 새로운 방식을 주장한다. 제국 질서는 홍하 델타에 근거한 대월 제국 왕조들의 오랜 역사의 결과물이 아니라 푸쑤언에 앉은 무왕의 신 세계질서를 계승한 것이라는 주장이다. `이만공만`과 `잠식지계`는 무왕의 후손들에게 여전히 유용했다. 그의 손자인 쟈롱은 타이, 크메르, 라오, 중국인, 산지민, 유럽인 같은 `만`을 이용해 또 다른 `만`인 `떠이썬 도적떼(西賊)`를 이겼다. 떠이썬에는 수많은 중국인 및 중국 해적이 활동하고 있었으며 참인, 산지민이 있었다. 무왕의 증손자인 민망 황제는 화려한 제국을 건설했다. 동시에 그는 캄보디아와 참 영역을 몽땅 먹어치우면서 영토 확장에도 골몰하고 있었다. Nguyen Cu Trinh has two faces in the history of territorial expansion of Vietnam into the Mekong delta. One is his heroic contribution to the Nguyen family gaining control over the large part of the Mekong delta. The other is his role to make the eyes of readers of Vietnamese history be fixed only to the present territory of Vietnam. To the readers, Nguyen Cu Trinh`s achievement of territorial expansion was the final stage of the nam tien of Vietnam. In fact, however, his achievement was partial. This study pays attention to the King Vo instead of Nguyen Cu Trinh in the history of the territorial expansion in the Mekong delta. King`s goal was more ambitious. And the ambition was propelled by his dream to build a new world, and its order, in which his new capital, Phu Xuan was to be the center with his status as an emperor. To improve my assertion, three elements were examined in this article. First is the nature of Vo Vuong`s new kingship. Second is the preparation and the background of the military operation in the Mekong Delta. The nature of the new territory is the third element of the discussion. In 1744, six years after this ascending to the throne, Vo Vuong declared he was a king. Author points out this event as the departure of the southern kingdom from the traditional dynasties based on the Red River delta. Besides, the government system, northern custom and way of dressings were abandoned and new southern modes were adopted. Vo Vuong had enough tributary kingdoms such as Cambodia, Champa, Thuy Xa, Hoa Xa, Van Tuong, and Nam Chuong. Compared with the Le empire, the number of the tributary kingdoms was higher and the number was equivalent to that of the đai Nam empire of the 19th century. In reality, author claims, the King Vo`s real intention was to become an emperor. Though he failed in using the title of emperor, he distinguished himself by claiming himself as the Heaven King, Thien Vuong. Cambodian king`s attack on the thousands of Cham ethnics in Cambodian territory was an enough reason to the King Vo`s military intervention. He considered these Cham men and women as his amicable subjects, and he saw them a branch of the Cham communities in his realm. He declared war against Cambodia in 1750. At the same time he sent a lengthy letter to the Siamese king claiming that the Cambodia was his exclusive tributary kingdom. Before he launched a fatal strike on the Mekong delta which had been the southern part of Cambodia, Vo Vuong renovated his capital Phu Xuan to the level of the new center of power equivalent to that of empire for his sake. Inflation, famine, economic distortion were also the features of this time. But this study pays attention more to the active policy of the King Vo as an empire builder than to the economic situation that has been told as the main reason for King Vo`s annexation of the large part of the Mekong delta. From the year of 1754, by the initiative of Nguyen Cu Trinh, almost whole region of the Mekong delta within the current border line was incorporated into the territory of Vo Vuong within three years, though the intention of the king was to extend his land to the right side of the Mekong Basin beyond the current border such as Kampong Cham, Prey Vieng, and Svai Rieng. The main reason was Vo Vuong`s need to expand his territory to be matched with that of his potential empire with the large number of the tributary kingdoms. King Vo`s strategy was the variation of `silkworm nibbling` and `to strike barbarians by barbarians.` He ate the land of Lower Cambodia, the region of the Mekong delta step by step as silkworm nibbles mulberry leave(general meaning of tam thuc), but his final goal was to eat all(another meaning of tam thuc) the part of the Mekong delta including the three provinces of Cambodia mentioned above. He used Cham to strike Cambodian in the process of getting land from Long An area to Chau đoc. This is a faithful application of the Di Man Cong Man (to strike barbarians by barbarians). In addition he used Chinese refugees led by the Mac family or their quasi kingdom to gain land in the region of Ha Tien and its environs from the hand of Cambodian king. This is another application of Di Man Cong Man. In sum, author claims a new way of looking at the origin of the imperial world order which emerged during the first half of the 19th century. It was not the result of the long history of đai Viet empires based on the Red River delta, but the succession of the King Vo`s new world based on Phu Xuan. The same ways of Di Man Cong Man and Tam Thuc Chi Ke were still used by Vo`s descendents. His grandson Gia Long used man such as Thai, Khmer, Lao, Chinese, and European to win another man the `Tay Son bandits` that included many of Chinese pirates, Cham, and other mountain peoples. His great grand son Minh Mang constructed a splendid empire. At the same time, however, Minh Mang kept expanding the size of his empire by eating all the part of Cambodia and Cham territories.

Regional Culture, Ethnic Culture and The Socio-Economic Development of The Mekong Delta

Vo Van Sen,Phan Van Dop 국제지역연구학회 2014 국제지역학논총 Vol.7 No.2

This paper is to investigate the current cultural and socioecomonic situation of the rural Mekong Delta in South Vietnam under the impact of the processes of modernization and urbanization. As a matter fact, Mekong Delta is the lately-founded land, land of multiculturalism, has maintained its old-style agricultural farming experience and not been ready to transform under the new waves of economy. In addition, the inadequate investigation from the central government has partially isolated this region from modernizing the local society. As a result, the standstill standard of living, the debt-enduring situation have pushed some of the households in harsh conditions, some seem to be stuck to manage, the others have to adopt unhealthy way to overcome the situation. From a long-term fieldwork research, the paper has primarily offered the scientific evidences for the adequate and effective policies which may be published for the change in Mekong Delta.

Factors Affecting Employee Engagement and Loyalty to the Organization: A Case Study of Commercial Banks in Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Ha Hong NGUYEN 한국유통과학회 2021 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.8 No.12

The objective of this study is to find out the factors affecting the employees‘ loyalty in private joint-stock commercial banks in Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Then, possible solutions can be proposed, which can be implemented to improve employees‘ engagement in private jointstock commercial banks in Mekong Delta, Vietnam, in the future. The author conducted a survey of 300 employees at 6 private joint-stock commercial banks in 6 provinces in Mekong Delta: An Giang, Tra Vinh, Can Tho, Ben Tre, Soc Trang, and Tien Giang. The author also used the Cronbach Alpha reliability analysis method, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and multivariate regression analysis. The results show the degree of influence of factors on employees‘ loyalty - according to decreasing importance: Income, Job characteristics, Working environment, Colleagues, Leadership. The authors propose some solutions based on the research findings, including focusing on assigning the right employees to the right jobs, creating a competitive and fair working environment, focusing on a reasonable income policy, and transparency in working relationships to help bank managers in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam improve human resource management to improve employee loyalty to private joint-stock commercial banks in Vietnam.

Factors Affecting the Development of Cultural Tourism in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Chi Hai NGUYEN 한국유통과학회 2022 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.9 No.3

Cultural tourism is a form of tourism based on national cultural identity with the participation of the community to preserve and promote traditional cultural values. Cultural tourism is a trend of many countries in the world, it is suitable for the context in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Cultural tourism is very good for poverty reduction activities, so it is considered a direction of socio-economic development. The study’s goal is to look at the factors that influence the development of cultural tourism in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta. Survey findings from 1275 survey samples in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, were used to compile the research data. Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient; exploratory factor analysis EFA; CFA confirmatory factor; SEM linear regression analysis are used to analyze and assess scales using SPSS 20, AMOS 24 software. According to the findings of the SEM model study, there are six factors that influence the development of cultural tourism in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, including policy development tourism, infrastructure for tourism, human resources for tourism, tourism resources, geographic location, tourism products, and services. A discussion on administration is proposed to the development of cultural tourism in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, based on the research findings.

Current Status and Implications of Korean ODA for Vietnam: The Case of Mekong Delta from the View of Climate Change

Lee, Eunmi,최가영,이수경,Jin, Taeyoung 한국기후변화학회 2020 한국기후변화학회지 Vol.11 No.5

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, one of the countries along the Mekong River, is an emerging driver of economic growth in Asia, but is facing major threats due to climate change. Especially, the Mekong Delta in Vietnam is one of the areas most vulnerable to direct inundation and salt water intrusion induced by climate change, which threatens the lives of the people who live there and harms the national and regional economies. This paper examines Korea’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) program in the Mekong Delta with a focus on climate change. We argue that Korea’s ODA has brought about and continues to provide mutual benefits for both countries, while additionally creating further opportunities to address the adverse effects of climate change in the Mekong Delta. The results show that while the Republic of Korea has been increasingly cooperative with Vietnam regarding economic and social development through ODA, there are limitations to dealing with the issues of climate change in the Mekong Delta. Therefore, we suggest more heavily focusing on climate change in the implementation of Korea’s ODA, thus promoting sustainability and climate resilience in the Mekong Delta.

연구논문 : 사회자본과 비공식 공동체 복지: 북부 홍강델타와 남부 메콩강델타 농촌 마을의 사례

백용훈 ( Yong-hun Beak ) 한국동남아학회 2015 동남아시아연구 Vol.25 No.3

이 논문은 도이머이 이후 베트남의 상황에 주목하여 남북부에 각각 위치한 농촌 지방에서의 비공식적 공동체 복지 현실을 탐구하고 남북부의 공동체 복지의 양상이 해당 사회가 보유해온 사회·문화적특성, 즉 사회자본과 어떠한 관계가 있는가를 파악해보았다. 이 논문에서 구체적으로 탐구하고자 하는 공동체 복지의 사례는 가족 구성원 간 사적소득이전과 가족 및 친척을 포함하여 자신의 주변 사람들과의 경조사 참석 및 계모임을 통해 주고받는 지원이다. 주민들과의 면접조사를 통해 파악해본 공동체 복지의 양상과 그 보호장치는 남북부에서 서로 차이를 보여주었다. 북부의 보호장치는 가족 단위의 개별성, 마을 공동체(딘, đinh, 亭), 그리고 닫힌 연결망으로 정리할 수 있다. 북부는 마을별로 가족, 친척, 그리고 이웃 주민들이 서로 강한 유대 관계를 유지하고 있었다. 반면 남부의 보호장치는 가족 개별성원의 개별성, 자발적 결사체(회, h0i, 會), 그리고 열린 연결망이다. 남부는 가족 및 공동체 구성원들의 개별적인 성향이 강했고 마을 단위의 구분 없이 이웃이나 자발적 결사체 구성원들과의 약한 유대를 통해 상호 간에 복지 자원을 교환하고 있었다. 남부의 공동체적 수준의 범위는 북부에 비해 훨씬 넓었지만, 그들 간에 친밀성을 바탕으로 한 결속력이 없는 상황에서 경조사 참석이나 계모임은 상대방과의 관계를 유지하기 위한 도구로서 기능하고 있었다. 본 논문의 함의는 두 가지로 요약될 수 있다. 하나는 남북부 두 사회가 각각 가지고 있는 생태적 환경, 거주 유형, 그리고 사회적관계에 이르는 일련의 역사적이고 문화적인 경로가 비공식 복지 영역에서 서로 다른 자원 교환의 방식에 영향을 주고 있다는 점이다. 다른 하나는 사회자본의 관점에서 볼 때 사회적 협력에 있어서 중요한 점은 네트워크뿐만 아니라 그 구성원들이 어떠한 친밀성을 바탕으로 도덕적 규범을 공유하고 있는가에 따라 달라진다는 점이다. 즉, 가족과 친척 그리고 자신의 주변 사람들에 해당하는 이웃들로부터 신뢰와 규범이 점차 축적되고 그것을 기반으로 확장되는 것이 중요하다. This study explores the reality of the informal community welfare, in particular, private income transfers and voluntary rotating credit systemsamong village residents through qualitative interviews in two rural areas of the northern Hong River Delta and southern Mekong River Delta. To fully understand the informal welfare mechanism in a society, this research focuses on reciprocity and social network that are components of social capital. The field research data was collected mainly in January-February 2014 and its interpretations indicate specific aspects of mutual assistance and informal welfare that is being exchanged among family members and residents within each commune (xa) as well as how it is related with the traditional and cultural context. The subjects exchanging mutually informal welfare resources in rural villages of the north are family, relatives, and neighbours. It is an important role that solidarity formed through a closed ties among them within their living space based on "đinh", a very strong sense of village collectivity. On the other hands, the south showed a different aspect comparing to the north. The concept of regional spatial extent of a village unit to the southern residents. They were more open to other villagers andexchanging welfare resources through "voluntary associations(h0i)" that people have joined individually, that is to say weak ties. But families still play an important role in the south. This study shows that traditional and cultural characteristics of different societies of northern and southern Vietnam support the value and exchange of informal welfare resources. It can be called ``protective arrangements`` that are the products of the ``traditions`` and the ``culture`` of each society concerned. The protective arrangements of the North are strong families, a cohesive village community(đinh), and closed network. And those of the South are strong families, loose neighbours, voluntary associations(h0i), and open network.

Determinants of Retail Banking Efficiency: A Case of Vietcombank Branches in the Mekong-Delta Region

LE, Thi Thu Diem Korea Distribution Science Association 2020 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.7 No.7

This study focused on researching the factors affecting retail banking efficiency of Vietcombank branches in the Mekong-Delta region. By collecting data from financial statements from 15 branches of VCB in the Mekong-Delta Region between 2015 and 2018, the paper applies DEA estimation to measure the effectiveness of retail banking activities and uses the Tobit regression model to identify factors affecting retail banking efficiency. The results demonstrate that the retail banking efficiency of branches averaged 52.5% during the period. The rating result shows the branches in An Giang, Can Tho, Dong Thap, Kien Giang, Long An, Phu Quoc and Tra Noc rank at the top technical efficiency. In group of medium efficiency, there are branches in Soc Trang, Tien Giang and Vinh Long. In the category of the poor efficiency are the branches in Bac Lieu, Ben Tre, Ca Mau, Chau Doc and Tra Vinh. The results also show that bank scale-related factors, capital adequacy, credit quality, time specific and region impact significantly the retail banking efficiency. The research not, only contributes to enriching the empirical research method but also is significant for the management activities in business developing strategies, improving the operational efficiency of Vietcombank in the region.

Monsoonal sediment transport along the subaqueous Mekong Delta: An analysis of surface sediment grain-size changes

Thanh C., Nguyen,An T., Dang,Khuong N.T., Tran Techno-Press 2022 Ocean systems engineering Vol.12 No.4

Annually, about 48-60% of sediment discharge of the Mekong River is delivered near the mouths of the Mekong River branches which is mostly coinciding with the southwest (SW) monsoon. This sediment budget in turn will be southwestwardly transported along the coast of the Mekong Delta (MD) during the northeast (NE) monsoon. Analysis of monsoonal changes in grain-size distribution (GSD) of surface sediment contributes to a better understanding of erosion and deposition processes along the MD. This study aims to figure out changes in GSD and sediment textures along the MD between SW and NE monsoons based on 183 surficial sediment samples collected along the MD during two field surveys carried-out in October 2016 and February-March 2017. Compared to the GSD during the SW and NE monsoon, the GSD along the MD changed significantly, especially in the estuary areas and along the coast of Bac Lieu and Ganh Hao. Whereas, in the west coast of the MD, GSD seem no changes between the two seasons. These changes in seabed sediment suggest that sediment with grain-sizes ranging from silt to fine sand can be transported during only a NE season.

Determinants of Income Diversification among Rural Households in the Mekong River Delta: The Economic Transition Period

LE, Long Hau,LE, Tan Nghiem Korea Distribution Science Association 2020 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.7 No.5

This paper examines the factors that drive temporal income diversification in rural areas of the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam, based on a framework that conceptualized diversification as a function of a household's capacity to diversify and incentives (both push and pull factors) to diversify. Drawing from five rounds of the Vietnam Living Standard Measurement Surveys covering a 13-year span (1993-2006), two panel datasets made from five cross-sectional samples are used for the analyses. The data are drawn from the Vietnam General Statistics Office. Both tobit model and Ordinary Least Squares model with random and fixed effects are applied. The main points emerging from the analysis is that income diversification is strongly influenced by household labor capacity. The relationship between household labor capacity and increasing insertion in non-farming wage activities is not driven by unobserved time-invariant factors such as household ability and motivation, but is instead driven by the higher labor capacity of households. In terms of the other household capacity variables, the effect of farm size is much larger in terms of retaining households in traditional occupations as compared to pushing them towards non-farm wage employment. Other variables such as household access to financial capital do not play an important role.

토속종교가 베트남 사람들의 생활문화에 끼친 영향

Ngo Van Le 조선대학교 국제문화연구원 2009 국제문화연구 Vol.2 No.1

Mekong delta is the largest delta in Vietnam with an area of 39000㎢, or 12% of the country’s. Therefore, the delta, together with Hochiminh City, has been and will be playing a very crucial role in Vietnam’s cultural-economic development strategies. Yet, while Mekong delta is a fairly new land in comparison with our nation’s long history, it has been a “promise land” or a “land of hope” to many migrants who have migrated to and resided over the delta in their pursuing of wealth and happiness. Many generations of the Vietnamese, side by side with other ethnic peoples, have exploited and protected the region which resulted in several magical achievements during wars against foreign invaders as well as in peace time. Mekong Delta is resided by multi-ethnic peoples. These peoples, who are different in terms of economic development level, social structure and religion, have come to existence over the land at different time points. However, through long history of co-residence, due to cultural exchange and acculturation, among the peoples there have emerged many common cultural features and this process is currently still on progress under proactive influences of modern circumstance. As a result, there have been many religions in the delta; besides world religions such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, there have existed local religions. Obviously, these religions contribute greatly to the cultural diversity of the whole southern part of the country. The Vietnamese is a majority people in the region. The culture of the Vietnamese in Mekong delta has selectively inherited cultural values of Vietnamese tradition. During their residing in the delta, the people has also adopted and created cultural features that are adaptative to natural and social environment of the region. For instance, at the end of 19^(th) century and early 20^(th) century, the Vietnamese in Mekong delta created several religions with ubiquitous local identities. In general, local religions have played very crucial roles in the life of the Vietnamese in the delta; however, their impacts have seldom spread out of the Vietnamese communities. In this paper, by viewing religion as both a social phenomenon and a cultural one, I concentrate on proposing the reasons for the birth of local religions of the Vietnamese in Southern Vietnam at the end of 19^(th) and early 20^(th) century. Also, I want to take a look at these religions’ impacts over cultural life of the people in the region. Assumedly, they were born under specific conditions of the South and only have impacts upon the life of the people. Furthermore, the paper proposes that, on one hand, the Vietnamese in the South have selectively inherited traditional cultural values which have created Vietnamese cultural values as the whole; on the other hand, they have made their own ones within the context of their new living conditions.