공정거래법과 지적재산권법 : 공정거래법 위반의 주장과 지적재산권침해금지소송

홍대식 민사판례연구회 2009 民事判例硏究 Vol.- No.31

지적재산권은 그 행사가 야기하는 법적 상황이 공정거래법상 문제를 제기하는 경우가 적지 않다. 그 이유는 지적재산권의 경우 그 창출을 통한 시장활동을 통하여 시장경제의 활성화를 지향하는 측면이 있다는 사실에서 찾을 수 있다. 이로 인하여 지적재산권의 행사에 공정거래법을 적용하기 위해서는 공통적인 목적이 필요하다. 공정거래법과 지적재산권법은 소비자 후생을 증진하고 기술혁신을 촉진하는 공통적인 목적을 공유하고 있다고 인식되고 있다. 기술혁신과 관련된 목적에 초점을 맞출 때, 기술혁신은 정태적 경쟁과 동태적 경쟁을 포괄하는 경쟁 개념에 기초한 경쟁을 촉진하는 것으로도 이해될 수 있다. 이 논문은 지적재산권 보유자의 일정한 행위가 공정거래법에 위반한다고 판단된 우리나라 하급심 판결을 논의의 소재로 삼고 있다. 판결의 분석을 통해 추출되는 몇 가지 쟁점은 다음과 같다. 지적재산권의 행사와 그 제한에 관한 법적 원리를 어떻게 정립할 것인가, 공정거래법의 목적과 지적재산권법의 목적을 어떻게 이해할 것인가, 그리고 그와 같은 목적들을 실현하기 위한 법적 수단 사이의 긴장을 조정하기 위하여 어떤 법해석적 방법을 사용할 것인가? 이러한 배경 하에, 이 논문은 먼저 지적재산권의 행사와 그 제한에 관한 일반론을 살펴보고(II), 이어서 공정거래법이 지적재산권의 남용을 규제하는 규범으로서 작용하는 상황을 법적 기초와 판단기준이라는 관점에서 고찰한다(III). 이 부분에서는 지적재산권의 행사에 대한 적용제외 원칙을 규정한 공정거래법 제59조과 불공정거래행위를 규정한 공정거래법 제23조가 자세히 검토될 것이다. 그때까지의 논의의 연장선상에서 이 논문은 판단기준의 적합성과 구제수단의 유효성을 평가하는 방식으로 대상 판결을 분석한다(IV). 이상의 논의를 종합하여, 이 논문은 공정거래법과 지적재산권법의 관계는 공통적인 목적을 추구하는 것으로 인식되어야 하고 지적재산권의 허용된 한계를 넘는 행위에 대하여 공정거래법을 적용할 때 그러한 목적에 따른 한계가 설정되어야 한다는 결론을 맺는다. 남은 문제들 부분에서는 향후의 연구과제들이 제시된다(V). Intellectual property right("IPR") raises some competition law issues under the situations caused by the exercise of IPR. The reason can be found in the fact that IPR has an inclination to activate market economy via market activities for the creation of IPR. This requires the common principles to be applied to the exercise of IPR with competition law. Competition law and intellectual property laws are recognized to share the common purpose of promoting innovation and enhancing consumer welfare. Focusing on the purpose relating to innovation, promoting innovation can be also understood as promoting competition based on the competition concept covering both static competition and dynamic competition. This article takes a Korean low court decision which held against IPR owner's certain act as infringing competition law for a discussion source. The analysis of the decision draws several issues; how to establish the legal principles of the enforcement of IPR and its restraints, how to understand the purposes of competition law and intellectual property laws, and which analytic method to use for co-ordinating the tension between legal measures to materialize those purposes. Against this background, this article first deals with the general theories regarding the enforcement of IPR and its restraints(II), and then explores the situations in which competition law works as rules controlling misuse of IPR in light of legal basis and standard(III). In this part, Article 59 of Korean competition law which stipulates exemption principle for the enforcement of IPR and Article 23 of Korean competition law which provides unfair trade practices are closely reviewed. To the extension of the discussion that far, this article analyses the decision in the way to assess the appropriateness of its standard and the effectiveness of its remedies(IV). The discussion leads to the conclusion that the relationship between competition law and intellectual property laws should be perceived as searching for the common purposes and there should set a limitation following such purposes when applying competition law to acts going beyond the permitted limit for the enforcement of IPR. The research subjects later are suggested as a closing(V).

오스트리아 학파의 관점에서 본 시장경제질서에서 경쟁과 독점의 의미

배진영 ( Jin-young Bae ) 한국질서경제학회 2008 질서경제저널 Vol.11 No.1

본 연구의 목적은 시장경제와 관련된 핵심적인 몇 가지 개념들을 통념적인 의미와는 다르게 해석하여 시장경제의 본질을 이해하는 데 도움을 주고자 하는 데 있다. 본 논문에서 다루어질 개념은 시장과 경쟁 그리고 독점이며 이들의 개념 이해를 오스트리안 경제학자들의 시각에서 정리하고 해석하였다. 시장은 교환의 상징적 표현에 불과하며, 시장은 개인의 자발적 거래로 형성된 질서이다. 따라서 시장은 무엇을 의도하지 않기 때문에 시장 실패라는 용어는 잘못된 것이다. 경쟁은 지식의 교환과 평행 과정이고 미지로의 탐험이며 조정과 혁신의 과정이다. 또한 경쟁은 승패의 과정이 아니라 차별화의 과정이며 각자의 능력과 장점을 발견해 주는 절차이기도 하다. 따라서 경쟁이 비인간적이고 냉혹한 과정이란 편입 견을 버려야 한다. 모든 제품과 생산요소는 소비자의 위치와 판매되는 시공간의 차이에 의해 동일하지 않다. 그렇다면 독점이란 처음부터 존재하지 않으며 시장을 완전경쟁, 독점, 불완전경쟁, 과점 등으로 분류하여 분석하는 것은 의미가 없다. 완전경쟁은 현실에서 존재하지 않기 때문에 누구도 경쟁가격을 모른다. 그렇다면 경쟁가격과의 비교로부터 나오는 독점가격도 존재하지 않는 개념이다. Korea is engulfed everyday by uproar of thousands of citizens against U.S. beef imports in May 2008. The textbook of economics always teaches that trade can make everyone better off. Regardless of this principle, the everyday uproar of beef imports leads to the situation of anarchy. This shows evidently how difficult it is to get them to understand logics of market economy order and competition from their hearts. To a certain extent this difficulty should result from the somewhat distorted and false interpretation about competition and monopoly. Economists should at least be responsible for providing an accurate knowledge about the essentials of the disciplines of market economy. This paper aims to provide a valuable appraisal of crucial aspects of market, competition and monopoly which differs from the textbook of economic principles which is dominated by Marshallian and Keynesian paradigm. This paper is based on the thoughts of Austrian School, especially Hayekian and Misesian paradigm. Market economy is a spontaneous order of a collaboration of free human actions. It is not the result of human design. This implies that a free market economy can be interpreted and understood in the best way only by analysing human behaviors and circumstances which set the limit of human actions, stressing knowledge and discovery. The Austrians adhere to these paradigms. It is the reason why this paper on the topic of competition and monopoly is written in the Austrian school's perspectives Despite all the criticism given on the model of perfect competition, it still occupies the starting point of all the positive and normative discussions. In fact, perfect competition is a sleeping competition. There is no competition at all. This has virtually ignored the role of competition in the market. As a result, it makes lots of students sketch the real market falsely and leads to the inaccurate interpretation of competition. Competition is a process of knowledge exchange between buyers and sellers. It is interpreted as a voyage of exploration and discovery into the unknown, too. It is also a process of differentiation through which one discovers his own best advantage that others have not. Therefore it could not be said that competition is inhumane. Interpreting competition like that, we can observe and understand the vitality of a real dynamic market process. There can be no monopoly or monopoly price on the free market. Monopoly can be defined only as a grant of privilege by the state. Monopoly price can not be distinguished at all from competitive price, because there is no discernable and identifiable competitive price. There is also no grounds that monopoly diminishes social welfare. The profit comes from the differences of the product and production factor. All profit should return not to the entrepreneur but to the production factors that enable to attain the profit.

해외부문과의 잠재적 경쟁과 시장구조: 실증분석과 정책적 함의

최용석,조성빈 한국개발연구원 2007 KDI Journal of Economic Policy (KDI JEP) Vol.29 No.1

Opening domestic market to international trade may enhance not only actual competition but also potential competition from foreign competitors. It seems that the competition authority has focused mainly on the actual competition (measured by the current market share) and has paid less attention to the potential competition. In this regards, this paper investigated the relation between potential foreign competition and domestic market structure. Using dynamic panel regression model, we analyzed the dynamic response of import penetration to the changes of domestic market condition in Korea as a proxy for the degree of potential foreign competition. The empirical results suggests that potential foreign competition does exist in the Korean manufacturing sector and this tendency is more stronger when the market is more concentrated. Thus, in order to effectively implement competition policy, it is necessary to consider both actual and potential competition. 대외개방의 진전은 해외로부터의 실재적 경쟁(actual competition)과 잠재적 경쟁(potential competition)을 동시에 촉진할 수 있다. 경쟁정책을 집행하는 데 있어 지금까지 경쟁당국은 국내시장에서 수입품이 차지하는 비율, 즉 실재적 해외경쟁만을 고려해 온 경향이 있으며, 잠재적 경쟁에 대한 고려는 상대적으로 적었던 것으로 판단된다. 본 논문은 수입침투율의 국내시장조건에 대한 동태적 반응을 잠재적 경쟁의 측정지표로 사용하여 해외로부터의 잠재적 경쟁이 한국의 산업별 시장구조에 따라 어떤 차이를 가지는가를 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 하고 있다. 동태적 패널모형을 이용한 실증분석의 결과, 해외로부터의 잠재적 경쟁이 유의하게 존재하며, 이는 국내시장구조가 상대적으로 독과점화되어 있는 경우 보다 강하게 나타난다는 것을 발견하였다. 이러한 결과는 국내시장구조만으로 경쟁의 정도를 파악하는 데에는 한계가 있으며, 따라서 경쟁정책의 왜곡을 줄이기 위해서는 해외부문과의 잠재적 경쟁을 적절히 반영하는 것이 필요하다는 것을 시사해 주는 것이라고 할 수 있을 것이다.

국제카르텔 제재의 국제적 수렴현상

이세인 梨花女子大學校 法學硏究所 2013 法學論集 Vol.17 No.3

Competition law regulates anti-competitive activities such as cartel, illegal mergers, and abuse of market power. Global Convergence in competition law area means that the competition laws of different countries change and move to similar direction. The reason that we can see significant global convergence in competition law area during the last twenty years is that countries cooperate in legislating and enforcing their competition laws. Countries cooperate through bilateral relationship between two countries, or they cooperate through international organizations such as OECD and UN to discuss current topics on competition law and to suggest some relevant policies in the area. Actually, during the last twenty years, the United States and the European Union have been major players in leading bilateral cooperation as well as multilateral movement for global convergence in competition law area. In relation to enforcement against international cartel, many countries including the United States, the European Union, Japan, China, and Korea have recently developed its competition tools in similar direction. First of all, they increased level of criminal or administrative penalties against the companies and individuals who engage in international cartels. Some countries even greatly increased maximum number of years of imprisonment for individuals up to ten years. Second, many countries adopted leniency policy for the purpose of expediting investigation process, and actually increasing number of companies and individuals are using the leniency policy to be exempted from fines and imprisonment. Third, many countries now apply their competition laws to the activities carried on outside of their countries under the theory of extraterritorial application. Although different countries use various legal doctrines for extraterritorial application of their competition laws, Korea, the US, the EU, and many countries use “Effect Doctrine”, which mean that if the anti-competitive activities carried out outside the country brings effect to the country, the competition law of the country should be applied to such activities. In sum, countries in the world have developed their competition laws to strongly enforce anti-cartel regulations and punish severly against the law-breakers during the last twenty years. Strong anti-cartel regulation may help to stabilize world market by stimulating competition. However, it also means greater risk of violating competition laws of foreign countries for Korean multinational companies, whose main activity is making sales in different countries. Under this circumstance, global convergence can work positively for these companies because they now have an expectation on how the law may be in other countries, or how it would develop. I am in the opinion that Korean competition authority, legal community, and academics should cooperate in researching and educating fast-changing competition environment of the world to the actual players in the corporations so our corporations carry out its business under the global standard of competition. 국제화 시대를 맞아 여러 나라들의 교류를 통해 다양한 법 분야에서 수렴현상이 일어나고 있다. 이 중 한 분야가 경쟁법 분야인데, 특히 국제카르텔 제재와 관련한 부분에서 수렴현상이 두드러지게 나타나고 있다. 이 분야에서 주요하게 나타나는 수렴현상은 과징금 및 형사처벌의 강화, 자진신고제도의 도입 및 활용의 증대, 관련 경쟁법 규정의 역외적용이다. 첫째, 과징금 및 형사처벌의 강화와 관련하여서는, 미국과 유럽연합의 경우 2000년대 중반에 카르텔 가담자에 대한 형사처벌 및 과징금 부과 규정을 강화시켰고, 한국과 일본의 경우도 국제카르텔에 대한 형사 및 행정제재의 수위를 높여 최근 적발된 국제카르텔에 대해 거액의 벌금 및 과징금을 부과한 바 있다. 둘째, 자진신고제도의 도입 및 활용의 증대와 관련하여서는, 한국, 미국, 유럽연합, 호주, 일본이 현재 모두 자진신고제도를 운영하고 있다. 또한 증가하는 과징금 및 벌금에 대해 부담감을 느끼는 기업과 개인들이 자진신고제도를 보다 많이 활용하고 있다. 셋째, 경쟁법의 역외적용과 관련하여서는, 많은 국가들이 자국 영토 밖에서 행해진 카르텔 행위라고 하더라도 자국 내 시장에 영향을 미쳤을 경우에는 이를 처벌하는 법률을 제정하거나, 판례로서 법리를 구성하여 해당 카르텔 가담자들을 처벌하고 있다. 국제카르텔 제재부분의 수렴현상을 주도한 가장 대표적인 주체는 미국과 유럽연합이라고 할 수 있다. 이들은 1991년에 반독점협력협정을 맺고 다양한 경쟁법 분야에서의 협력을 꾀하여 왔다. 그러나 2000년대에 들어서는 국제기구 및 네트워크를 중심으로 세계 여러 나라가 경쟁법의 발전과 수렴에 역할을 담당하였다고 할 수 있다. 우리나라의 입장에서 볼 때, 위의 세 가지 현상을 포함한 국제카르텔 분야의 수렴현상은 몇 가지 의미가 있다고 할 수 있다. 첫째, 국제카르텔에 대한 제재 강화 및 역외적용은 수출에 의존하는 우리 기업들이 타국의 경쟁법 체재에 노출될 위험이 증대되는 것이라고 할 수 있다. 그러나 둘째로는 이미 경쟁법 관련 국제기구 및 단체에서 활발하게 활동하고 있는 우리 경쟁당국과 법조인 및 학자를 통해 변화하는 경쟁법 수렴 환경을 빠르게 파악하여 국내 기업들을 교육할 수 있는 환경에 있다는 것을 의미하기도 한다. 즉, 기업들이 처하게 될 경쟁 환경은 제재가 강화된다 할지라도, 이를 사전에 파악하고 충분히 대처하여 우리 기업들의 경쟁 활동이 글로벌 스탠다드에 맞도록 할 수 있다는 것이다. 셋째, 세계 무역의 상당 부분에 관여하고 있는 우리나라가 국제적인 수렴현상을 주도적으로 이끌 기회를 얻을 수 있다고 본다. 현재 각국에서 국제카르텔에 대한 제재 강화현상이 두드러지고 있으나, 아직까지 하나의 행위에 대해 여러 나라에서 처벌될 수 있는 위험성을 어떻게 해결할 지의 문제, 각국의 손해배상 산정법이 다른 경우 발생하는 공정성의 문제 등에 대해 거시적으로 제안을 한 경우는 없었다. 이는 다국적으로 활동하는 우리 기업들에게 현실적으로 다가오는 문제인 만큼, 앞으로 이러한 부분에 대한 연구도 더 심도 있게 진행되기를 기대해 본다.

경쟁과 다양성: 방송관련법의 목적의 관점

홍대식 한국법제연구원 2013 법제연구 Vol.- No.44

This article firstly explores into the concepts, components, and pictures of institutional realization of competition and diversity respectively on the premise that competition and diversity comprise the primary objectives to be pursued by the broadcasting-related laws which provide the concrete measures of media policy, and argues that while the competition objective has differentiation factors, there are also particularities in the diversity value in the broadcasting-related laws as sector-specific competition laws. Then assuming that special competition rules including structural regulatory measures particularly in the broadcasting market are required in order to realize values of competition and diversity harmoniously, this article suggests the following improvement directions for regulations aimed at protection of competition and diversity in the broadcasting-related laws. The first one is with the improvement method for regulations aimed at protection of competition. Regulation on share of audience as an ex ante regulation of status and regulation on prohibited activities as an ex post regulation of conduct may play important roles in substituting the causative regulation while seeking for diversity value. For this purpose, it is needed to develop a concrete method that incorporates diversity-related factors as consideration factors in the standard for determining illegality of prohibited activities by inference to methods of determining illegality in the competition law. The second one is with the improvement method for regulations aimed at protection of diversity. This could be considered from three viewpoints that are the setting of regulatory objectives, the identification of alternative regulatory measures, and the choice of regulatory measures and levels suitable for regulatory objectives. From these viewpoints, the regulatory framework should be improved mainly with institutional measures in which diversity value is used for tools of assessment and analysis, not just remaining as mere rhetorical devices, and whether or to what extent to maintain regulations seemingly unreasonable in terms of harmonization with economic objectives such as competition should be discreetly reviewed. 이 글에서는 먼저 경쟁과 다양성이 미디어 정책의 구체적인 수단을 규정한 방송관련법이 추구하는 주된 목적이 된다는 것을 전제로 하여 각각의 개념과 구성요소 그리고 그 제도적 구현의 모습을 살펴보고, 특정분야의 경쟁법으로서의 방송관련법에서는 경쟁 목적이 차별성 요인을 갖는 한편 다양성 가치도 특수성을 갖는다는 논의를 전개한다. 다음으로 경쟁과 다양성 가치를 조화롭게 실현하기 위해서는 방송시장 특유의 구조적 규제수단을 포함하는 특별한 경쟁규칙이 필요하다고 전제하면서, 방송관련법상 경쟁 목적 규제와 다양성 목적 규제에 대하여 개선되어야 할 방향을 다음과 같이 제시한다. 첫째, 경쟁 목적 규제의 개선 방안이다. 사전적인 상태적 규제로서의 시청점유율 규제와 사후적인 행위규제로서의 금지행위 규제는 다양성 가치를 추구하면서도 원인적 규제를 대체하는 데 중요한 역할을 할 수 있다. 이를 위하여 공정거래법의 위법성 판단방식을 유추하여 다양성 관련 요소를 금지행위의 위법성 판단기준의 고려요소로 하는 방식을 구체적으로 개발할 필요가 있다. 둘째, 다양성 목적 규제의 개선 방안이다. 이는 규제 목적의 설정, 대체가능한 규제수단의 식별, 규제 목적에 맞는 규제수단과 규제수준의 선택이라는 3가지 관점에서 검토될 수 있다. 이러한 관점에서 다양성 가치가 단순한 수사적 도구에 그치지 않고 평가 및 분석 도구로 사용될 수 있는 제도적 수단 위주로 규제 틀을 개선하는 한편, 경쟁과 같은 경제적 목적과의 조화를 고려할 때 불합리해 보이는 규제에 대하여는 이를 유지할 것인가 또는 어느 정도로 유지할 것인가를 신중하게 재검토해야 한다.

COMPETITION BETWEEN GENERALIST AND SPECIALIST IN A SMALL BUSINESS CONTEXT

Jeeyeon Kim,Woo Yong Jo,Alex Jiyoung Kim,Jeonghye Choi 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2017 Global Fashion Management Conference Vol.2017 No.07

This paper aims to expand our understanding on the success factors of small businesses, which comprise of more than 90 percent of all businesses in U.S. in 2016. One of the most critical issues behind small business success is the competition, which becomes increasingly intense. Not only small businesses fiercely compete with larger competitors (e.g. Emergence of mega-retailers such as Wal-Mart has intensified the competition in the grocery industry, and, as a result, many mom and pop stores have gone out of business.), but also the competition against each other (i.e. competition between small businesses) becomes increasingly aggressive. Yet, the current literature in marketing have less investigated the issue of competition between small businesses, while issues on competition between small and large businesses have been somewhat explored. Another phenomenon in small business that has not received much attention is the competition between generalist and specialist firms. This phenomenon of specialist versus generalist competition is in fact frequently observed in many industries. Therefore, we study competition between small businesses, focusing on the competition between generalist and specialist small businesses. We examine how competitive intensity, as well as market environmental factors, affect the performance of small businesses. Specifically, we decompose the competitive intensity into two types, one between generalists and the other between specialists, in order to identify the differential effects of competition between generalist and specialist, and examine their impacts on the generalist and specialist performance. Given the research questions above, we develop the following hypotheses based on the past research in marketing. First, we expect competition has a positive effect on generalist performance, while we expect the opposite effect on specialist performance. We also expect that the effect of competition becomes weaker, as the competition becomes more intense. That is, the positive (negative) impact of competition on generalist (specialist) performance becomes less significant as there are more competitors in the market. We further expect that competition between the same type of businesses (e.g. between generalists) has a positive effect on their performance, while competition between the difference types (e.g. between generalist and specialist) has a negative effect on their performance. Moreover, we expect that market environmental factors have differential effects on the performance of generalist and specialist. To test the aforementioned hypotheses on the small business competition between generalist and specialist, we collected data from the health care industry on private physician practices (offices) in Korea. Out data contain, for each practice, monthly sales, number of doctors, number of nurses, type of practice, number of beds and zip code it is located in. We also have data on average consumer spending, average medical spending, percentage of patients over sixty years old for each zip code. Moreover, we have data on competition between the same type of offices (e.g. between generalists and between specialists) and competition between different types (e.g. between generalist and specialist). Note that our data collected from the Korean health care industry fit our research questions well. First, the majority of medical service providers in Korea are small private practices with an average number of two doctors, and the share of generalist and specialist practices are about half-and-half. Second, unlike the U.S. health care industry, generalist physicians in Korea usually practice a number of different fields, while specialist physicians focus on their own specialties. Third, patients in Korea do not usually distinguish between generalist and specialist offices, and they do not usually have a primary care physician. As a result, patients can easily switch between physicians, and in fact the switching is highly likely, as all medical information is centralized by government. Our main findings are as follows. First, we find that competition has a positive effect on generalist performance, while it has a negative effect on specialist performance. Specifically, we find that generalist benefits from competition with both generalist and specialist, while specialist suffers from the competition with both specialist and generalist. As competition becomes intense, meaning the number of physician offices increases, it would attract more patients to visit the area where physician offices are clustered (clustering effect), while it becomes easier for patients to switch from one to the other nearby offices. In particular, as generalist usually treats multiple fields (specialties), generalist tends to benefit from the patients who switch from specialist. In other words, generalists benefit from competition, as they free ride on clustering of physicians including specialists, while specialists would suffer from competition. Second, our findings show that as the competition becomes more intense, its effect on business performance becomes weaker. That is, a high level of competition weakens the benefits and damages imposed on the performance of generalist and specialist, respectively. When there are more physician offices to switch, the effect of free riding becomes weaker, as patients have more options to choose from. Thus, the benefit of generalist from free riding becomes weaker, as well as the negative effect on specialist performance. Moreover, our findings suggest that market environmental factors do influence the business performance. Specifically, the performance of both generalist and specialist improves as the number of doctors increases. However, an increase in the number of nurses has a different effect on generalist and specialist. Employing a larger group of nurses has a negative effect on generalist because it might cause the operation of the office to be less efficient. However, since specialist’s practice usually involves a more technical and sophisticated processes, a larger group of nurses could make the office more efficient having a positive impact on the sales performance. Similarly, we find the effects of other environmental factors have differential impacts on the performance of specialist versus generalist.

모바일 게이트키퍼 관련 경쟁제한성 문제의 최근 논의

최요섭 건국대학교 법학연구소 2024 一鑑法學 Vol.- No.57

최근 디지털 생태계에서의 역동적 효율성 증진과 같은 긍정적인 효과와 함께 다양한 경쟁제한적 문제들이 논의되고 있다. 특히, 디지털 생태계에서 발생하는 다양한 경쟁제한행위에 대한 기존 경쟁법의 적용과 효과에 대해서 부정적인 시각이 있으며, 이러한 이유로 새로운 디지털 법률을 논의하기도 한다. 하지만 모바일을 포함한 디지털 생태계는 지속적으로 진화하고 있으며, 이러한 특징은 경쟁정책을 수립하는 데 고려되어야 한다. 예컨대, 새로운 디지털플랫폼의 구조 혹은 체계와 경쟁증진, 대체서비스 또는 보완서비스의 등장이나, 잠재적 시장진입, 플랫폼의 경쟁과 생존에 필요한 기술적, 경제적, 사회적 요소들이 고려되어야 한다. 이러한 요소들은 파괴적 혁신과 관련이 깊다. 그런데 디지털 분야에서 언제 어떻게 파괴적 혁신이 등장할 지 예측하는 것은 쉽지 않다. 따라서 모바일 분야와 같은 디지털 생태계에서 게이트키퍼의 현재 지위가 신규경쟁에 의해 어떻게 제한될지 예측하는 것은 어렵다. 따라서 유럽연합의 디지털시장법(DMA)과 같이, 경제분석 없는 경쟁압력 및 경쟁제한성 판단기준은 디지털 생태계에서의 파괴적 혁신에 부정적인 영향을 줄 수 있다. 그러므로 효과적인 경쟁법집행 및 경쟁정책 수립을 위해, 융복합적인 접근방법으로 지속적으로 진화하는 디지털 생태계를 연구하고 살펴볼 필요가 있다. 역사적으로 경쟁법은 새로운 분야 혹은 산업이 등장하면서 발생하는 독점문제를 해결하기 위해 발전하였다. 무엇보다, 모바일 생태계도 시대의 흐름에 따라 발전하는 분야이며, 모바일 게이트키퍼의 행위가 경쟁제한적인 결과를 발생시키는 경우에는 충분히 기존 경쟁법의 적용이 가능하다. 다만, 현재 모바일 생태계에서의 경쟁제한성의문제가 경쟁법과 정책에서 어려운 과제가 되고 있는 것이 사실이다. 따라서 최근 유럽연합과영국에서 논의하는 모바일 생태계 분석내용은 향후 우리나라 경쟁당국이 경쟁제한분석에 필요한 비교형량 기준을 설정하는 데 참고가 될 수 있을 것이다. We have seen certain benefits like dynamic efficiency and shortcomings, including anti-competitive outcomes, in several digital or mobile ecosystems. In particular, some critics argue that the existing competition law cannot be effectively applicable to prohibit anti-competitive conducts in mobile ecosystems, which eventually led to a discussion on a new digital regulation, such as the EU’s Digital Markets Act (DMA). However, before considering a new regulation, it is essential to understand that digital ecosystems, including the mobile ecosystem, continuously evolve. Among other things, we need to examine the structures and frameworks of digital or mobile platforms and their competition improvement, the alternative or supplementary services, the potential market entry, the technological, economic, and social elements for competition and their survival. The elements above deeply relate to dynamic competition. Nevertheless, it is not easy to predict when and how disruptive innovation may occur. Likewise, it is unpredictable whether the current power of mobile gatekeepers can be limited by new entrants and competition. Therefore, an absence of economic analysis on competitive constraints and a lack of assessment of competitive effects, as shown in the DMA, may generate various negative effects on disruptive innovation. It is thus necessary to study the evolving digital ecosystems in order to have effective competition law enforcement and to establish a sound competition policy. From a historical perspective, competition law has developed to solve the monopoly problems that stem from the newly developing industries. The area of mobile or digital ecosystems is also part of new industries. Therefore, it is possible to apply the current competition law to any anti-competitive conducts, including those in digital ecosystems. Recently, the topic of competition law for digital ecosystems has become one of the difficult issues. The study on digital ecosystems in Europe and the UK may help the Korean competition policymakers develop an appraisal standard of competitive effects in digital or mobile ecosystems. This work focuses on the recent development of analyses on digital ecosystems and mobile gatekeepers.

경쟁시장의 창출과 경쟁법: 유비쿼터스도시서비스 시장의 경우

홍대식 ( Dae Sik Hong ) 한국경쟁법학회 2009 競爭法硏究 Vol.19 No.-

This article tries to deal with specific competition issues raised in the course of making a new market in which there had been no market function at all or the spontaneous formation of the market function is hard to be expected. Under such situations, competition-fostering policy defined broadly should be implemented which requires positive policy measures distinctive from those for the general competition law. As a proposition to the discussion, this article draws a line between the general competition law and the special competition law and corresponds the former to the narrowly-defined competition-fostering policy in comparison to the broadly-defined competition-fostering policy. I will use the term of the broadly-defined competition-fostering policy as inclusive of various policy tools designed to aim to establish a pro-competitive institutional framework. Against this background, this article focuses on the case of the ubiquitous city service markets which are encouraged to emerge with the operation of the Act on the Construction, etc. of Ubiquitous Cities(U-City Construction Act). Recently, the U-City model as a new futuristic city paradigm tends to actively apply to both the development of new cities and the improvement of old city regions in Korea. U-city Construction Act has it as an objective to improve competitiveness of the cities and to promote sustainable development. The U-City concept has two elements: U-City infrastructure and U-City services. Viewed from the whole process of the U-City realization, the former is related to planning and construction stages and the latter is related to the management and operation stages. For the U-City services to be profitable enough to induce private investment, the active role of government is needed in developing business models based on the definition of property rights and in presenting public-private partnership or private participation models because the public feature of the U-City services does not seem to allow the creation of competitive markets and even the spontaneous market formation. By explaining some institutional tasks and suggesting some kinds of ways to cope with those, I would like to emphasize the importance and effectiveness of the competition principle which should be consistently preserved even in the context of the broadly-defined competition-fostering policy.

시장경쟁질서와 기업의 재무정책

손판도 ( Pando Sohn ),송영수 ( Youngso Song ),최칠선 ( Chilsun Choi ) 한국질서경제학회 2015 질서경제저널 Vol.18 No.3

본 논문에서는 1981년부터 2013년까지 거래소에 상장된 비-금융기업을 대상으로 시장경쟁질서가 기업의 재무정책에 어떻게 영향을 미치는지 기존 제시된 이론적 모형을 제시하고 실증적 결과를 제시한다. 이론적 모형에서 현금보유정책은 상품시장의 경쟁 강도에 의하여 영향을 받으며 특히 경쟁강도가 높고 재무제약이 존재하는 기업일수록 현금을 증가시킨다는 예측을 제시하고 있다. 이러한 이론적 모형 예측 결과가 국내 기업에서도 실증적으로 뒷받침 되는지를 거래소시장에 상장된 비-금융기업을 대상으로 실증 검증한다. 실증 검증 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째 경쟁기업의 수(N), 허핀덜지수(HHI), 러너지수(PCM) 및 EPCM 등의 다양한 경쟁강도를 측정하는 대리변수를 사용하여 실증 분석한 결과 경쟁강도가 높을수록 현금보유를 늘리기 보다는 오히려 줄이려는 경향을 보였으며 이러한 결과는 이론적 모형에서 예측한 결과와 일치하지 않고 있다. 따라서 국내 비-금융기업들의 현금보유정책이 경쟁정도에 따라 외국기업과는 다른 독특한 특성을 가지고 있음을 알 수 있다. 둘째, 재무제약이 기업의 현금보유정책에 어떻게 영향을 주는지를 파악한 결과 전기 재무제약이 존재할수록 미래 현금보유를 늘리려는 경향을 보였으며 이러한 결과는 모형에서 예측한 결과를 뒷받침해 주고 있다. 셋째, 경쟁강도가 높고 재무제약인 기업이 현금보유정책에 어떻게 영향을 주는지를 검증한 결과 현금보유와 재무제약을 가진 높은 시장경쟁을 가진 기업이 보다 더 많은 현금을 보유하는 경향이 나타났다. 이러한 결과도 이론적 모형에서 제시한 결과를 뒷받침해 주고 있다. 본 실증 분석 결과는 기업의 재무정책에 대한 기존 제시된 결정요인들 이외에 중요한 요인들이 존재함을 보여주는 것이며 이러한 요인들은 시장과의 관계에 매우 중요한 시사점을 제시하고 있다. This study investigates whether market competition order affects corporate financial policy and also the interaction between market competition and financial constraint by using Korean manufacturing firms listed in KOSPI market over 1981 to 2013. Based on the previous dynamic cash model from the theoretical background, the industry equilibrium provides the evidence of the effect of market competition on financial cash or liquidity policy. This model also finds that financial constrained firms use cash reserve withstand liquidity shortfalls during recession economy condition. This fact implies that market competition order triggers two contrasting effects. First, it increases the option value to remain active in the market, which means reinforcing the precautionary motive for holding cash or liquidity asset. Second, it induces the firms to reduce leverage and interest payments on debt. Thus lower debt payments require a smaller amount of cash or liquidity reserve, other things being equal. Although the overall effect is potentially ambiguous, under realistic conditions, cash increases with competition. Therefore, this prior study suggests that competition can explain the increase in cash holdings and exacerbate the negative relation between leverage and cash in this paper. In summarizing all of results from theoretical and empirical predictions, we find that product market competition order affects positively the financial policy, such as the level of cash holdings or liquidity policy, and also firms with higher financial constraint and higher product market competition order tends to increase the cash holdings or liquidity policy. Based on this prediction from model, we confirm that the results predicted from model support the evidence from real data using sample of non-financial firms listed in KOSPI market. To find more strong results, we use several various proxies for product market competition like number of competitive firm in a same industry, Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), and excess of price-cost margin (EPCM), and financial constraint like SA Index, and then confirm the predicted result from the model. Also we implement various estimation methods, which are OLS and fixed effect model to find the evidence predicted in the model. We find in empirical test as follows: First, we show that order of product market competition by using number of firms, HHI, and EPCM affect negatively the cash holdings or liquidity policy, which are all financial policies. This empirical result is inconsistent with predicted result from the model. This evidence implies that Korean non-financial firms tend to decrease the cash holdings as the product market competition increases. Thus we guess that there is a unique characteristic of Korean non-financial firms in terms of the product market competition and the cash holdings. Second, we find that the intensity of product market competition increases with the intensity of financial constraints, which is consistent with the predicted result from the model. Third, we also find that the effect of intensity of market competition on cash holdings increases with the intensity of financing constraints, which is consistent with the predicted result from the model. We conclude that the empirical evidences found in this paper are robust regardless of several competition measures and estimation methods. These findings suggest that the intensity of product market competition and financial constraint play a key role in decision making of firm’s financial policies such as cash holdings policy or liquidity policy in terms of firm operation.

태권도 경기 양상의 현상학적 고찰

김지혁,임일혁 한국체육철학회 2009 움직임의철학 : 한국체육철학회지 Vol.17 No.4

Through phenomenological experience study method, there are many problems concerning existing rules that need revision and supplement, and phenomenological experience study developed from phenomenology of philosophy became the theoretical basis on changes in Taekwondo competitions of today. Therefore, the researcher has obtained the following conclusions as a result of a study focused on phenomenological discussion on changes in Taekwondo competition: First, Rules for Taekwondo competition today are under change due to external demand of Taekwondo competition under the name of development of Taekwondo as a sport. Second, Since most recent revision on Taekwondo competition rules are applied variously in each Taekwondo related institutions, Taekwondo competition rules lack unity. Third, Taekwondo arena originally connotes the meaning of Korea's traditional five colors. However, with the revision of competition rules, the tradition on meaning of colors is not considered enough, and is being deteriorated by turning up or tying the uniform pants at the bottom. Fourth, When we compare the characteristic of victory pursued by sports and obligation as a human being pursued by martial arts with Taekwondo competition, now what we call martial art and sport today, there is a conceptual paradox of terms. Fifth, Balanced development of Taekwondo in both martial art and sport aspects, new competition rules with consideration on tradition and martial art must be cox oed. Such revision and application of competition rules could become a pivotal roartfor Taekwondo competition to be reborn as 'martial art-sport' by developing sport aspect of Taekwdon, lx ving the martial art essence of Taekwondo. Sixth, Martial art-sportsman capable of accepting the result of competition as both martial art trainee and athlete. This enables cultivation of ideal human as well as sportsmanship pursued by sports. Seventh, An attempt for unity of Taekwondo competition would not be easy. However, such developmental attempt could have a great impact on balanced development of Taekwondo. Away from today's Taekwondo competition especially, which makes too much of sports aspect, cultivation of a true and wholistic Taekwondo trainee, who could unite all skills of composition theory of Taekwondo would be possible. 이 연구는 현상학적 체험연구방법을 통하여 현행 태권도 경기규칙에 대하여 수정․보완해야 할 내용들을 탐색하는데 그 목적이 있다. 연구를 진행한 결과 다음과 같은 결론을 도출하였다. 첫째, 현재 태권도 경기규칙은 스포츠로써 태권도의 발전을 위한다는 명목 하에 태권도 경기의 외부적 요구에 의해 변화되고 있는 실정이다. 둘째, 최근 태권도 경기규칙 개정에 대한 내용이 각 태권도 관련기관마다 다르게 적용되고 있어 경기규칙 적용의 일관성이 결여되고 있다. 셋째, 태권도 경기장은 우리나라 전통의 색인 오방정색의 의미를 내포하고 있음에도 불구하고, 경기규칙의 개정에 따라 심판복에 내포되어 있는 색채의 의미와 태권도복에 내포하고 있는 전통성이 고려되지 않고 기형적으로 변질되어 가고 있다. 넷째, 현재 ‘무도스포츠’라고 칭하고 있는 태권도 경기에서 무도가 추구하는 인간됨의 도리와 스포츠가 지향하는 특성을 대조해 본다면 이는 모두 용어와 개념상 모순을 가지고 있다. 다섯째, 무도적 측면과 스포츠적 측면의 균형적인 발전을 위해서 전통성과 무도성을 고려한 태권도 경기규칙이 새롭게 제정되어야 할 것이다. 이러한 경기규칙의 개정과 적용에서는 태권도의 무도적 본질을 상실하지 않은 채 태권도의 스포츠적 측면을 보다 발전시킴으로써 태권도 경기가 ‘무도스포츠’로서 거듭나는데 중추적인 역할을 할 수 있을 것이다. 여섯째, 무도인이자 운동선수로써 경기의 결과에 승복할 줄 아는 무도스포츠맨으로 거듭나야 할 것이다. 이를 통해 무도에서 지향하는 이상적 인간의 육성과 동시에 스포츠에서 강조하고 있는 스포츠맨십이 서로 함께 공유할 수 있을 것이다. 일곱째, 태권도 경기의 통합화 시도는 태권도의 균형적인 발전에 큰 영향을 미칠 수 있을 것이다. 특히 스포츠 측면으로만 편중되어 있는 현재의 태권도 경기는 물론, 태권도 구성원리의 모든 기술들을 아우를 수 있는 진정한, 그리고 총체적인 태권도인에로의 육성이 가능해질 것으로 사료된다.