조선후기 왕실원당(王室願堂)의 사회적 기능

탁효정 ( Tak Hyo-jeong ) 청계사학회 2004 청계사학 Vol.19 No.-

The Royal Buddhist Shrine(王室願堂) is a temple that a donator is involved in foundation, restoration and donation of it almost monopolistically, and manages the temple and offer a prayer. The Royal Buddhist Shrine is a term that has been shown only in Korean history book since Shilla(新羅) period. In this paper, the topics will be existing types of royal buddhist society and buddhism in late Joseon Dynasty. The Royal Buddhist Shrine is a temple of praying a blessing. In a wide meaning, The Royal Buddhist Shrine is a temple that pray a blessing for the royal family. In a narrow sense, it is a temple that deifies The royal family's memorial tablets and holds a memorial service of the royal family. I define the Royal Buddhist Shrine as a temple that is supported by the royal family financially and given immunity from taxation and exempted from public labor. Since Sung Confucianism had became the doctrine of the founding country in Joseon Dynasty, Buddhist society became withered and the social function of Buddhism became small. Joseon noble men(士大夫) excluded Buddhism and Joseon government took the slaves and lands of Buddhist temples. However, nevertheless the governmental policy, royal family held various Buddhist functions continuously. So in early Joseon Dynasty, the temples being located in Kyongkido(京畿道) and very famous mountains performed royal Buddhist rituals being designated as the Royal Buddhist Shrine and Suryuksa(水陸社). Though most national Buddhist rituals were abolished, the Royal Buddhist shrine survived until the late Joseon Dynasty. Yet there were some changes of the type and characteristics in the royal temples. In this paper, I thought about the type and character of the Royal Buddhist Shrine. The first chapter says about the foundation background and present condition of the Royal Buddhist Shrine. The second chapter divides the Royal Buddhist Shrine into three types according to foundation purposes. The first type is a temple that protects tombs of the king and his relations. Another is one that keeps the navel cord of the king and princes. Thirdly, the other is a special one that is located in a capital city. The third chapter says about functions of the Royal Buddhist Shrine in late Joseon Dynasty. In the late Joseon Dynasty, the Royal Buddhist Shrine was founded continuously. It shows the social characteristics of Buddhism at that time. In spite of the policies of suppressing Buddhism, the Royal Buddhist Shrine was protected by the royal family and government. It is because the royal family needed temples to charge buddhist rituals and sources to levy taxes. So the functions of Wondang are divided into religious one and economical one. At first, the Royal Buddhist Shrine is a institution to worship ancestors. Buddhist Shrine had functioned as a facility to worship prior kings and queens since the period of the Three Kingdoms, however in the late Joseon Dynasty, it was mainly founded for the relations of king that could not been laid in the royal Ancestors Shrine, according to the confucius order of rank. Secondly, the Royal Buddhist Shrine took charge of Buddhist rituals of the royal family. Independently of national policy that suppress Buddhism, the royal family believed in Buddhism persistently. So they needed a temple to undertake their Buddhist rituals. In the late Joseon Dynasty, national Buddhist rituals were abolished, but the Royal Buddhist Shrine was continuously founded. This shows the social status of Buddhism that prays for one's welfare in the future life and pays a tribute to spirituals. Thirdly, the Royal Buddhist Shrine is a base of royal finance. The royal family could reduce expenses of Buddhist rituals through appointment of a temple as the Royal Buddhist Shrine, and could collect taxes from it. Temples also were delighted with being appointed as the Royal Buddhist Shrine, because they could get out of the exploitation of Confucian scholars. As we could see from the above, the Royal Buddhist Shrine in the late Joseon dynasty, could survive because of the royal family’s belief in Buddhism and needs of the nation. In this journal, the main points are background of founding, types and functions of the Royal Buddhist Shrine. In addition to this, changes of the Royal Buddhist Shrine shows the characteristics of Buddhism in late Joseon Dynasty.

19세기 불교계 동향과 송광사의 위상

탁효정(Tak Hyo Jeong) 보조사상연구원 2016 보조사상 Vol.45 No.-

19세기는 조선 불교계가 가장 큰 어려움을 겪던 시기였다. 여기에는 여러 가지 복합적인 이유가 있었지만, 가장 큰 원인은 19세기 조선 왕조의 사회경제적 모순이 불교계로 전가되었기 때문이었다. 三政이 문란해지고 국가경제가 피폐해지면서 조선 왕조는 조세 부족분의 일부를 승역과 사찰 잡역으로 충당 하고자 하였다. 사찰에 대한 경제적 수탈이 심각해지면서 전국에 폐사하는 사찰들이 속출했고, 대형 사찰들조차 존폐 위기를 걱정하는 지경에 이르렀다. 이같은 19세기의 위기상황에서도 불교계는 교단을 지키기 위한 노력을 아끼지 않았다. 전국 사찰들은 결사와 염불회를 결성해 불교 진흥을 도모했으며, 사찰경제를 유지하기 위한 각고의 노력을 기울였다. 명산대찰들이 寺勢를 보전할 수 있는 가장 용이한 방법은 바로 왕실원당의 설치였다. 왕실원당으로 지정된 사찰에는 왕실의 막중한 역을 담당하고 있다는 이유로 별도의 잡역 부과가 금지되었으며, 寺位田등의 경제적 혜택이 주어졌다. 호남을 대표하는 사찰인 송광사는 19세기 중반 고종, 민비, 순종 등 三殿의 祝願堂으로 지정된데 이어 20세기초에 고종의 기로소원당으로 선정되었다. 이는 고려시대부터 이어져온 송광사의 명성이 뒷받침 되었기에 가능한 일이었지만 다른 한편으로는 사찰의 위기를 극복하기 위한 송광사 측의 적극적인 유치 노력이 있었다. 송광사는 조선초부터 불교계를 대표하는 사찰로 국가적인 비호를 받았고, 조선후기까지 꾸준히 왕실의 원당으로 지정되는 등 왕실과 밀접한 관계를 맺고 있었다. 그런데 조선말에 이르러 대화재가 발발하고 사찰이 극도로 피폐해진 상황에서도 왕실원당으로 지정될 수 있었던 데에는 송광사 승려 용운의 공로가 매우 컸다. 용운은 1842년 송광사에 화재가 발생해 대부분의 전각이 전소되었을 당시 중창불사를 주도했던 인물이었다. 용운은 순천부사 이범진을 통해 왕실원당 유치작업을 벌였고, 1886년에 고종과, 민비, 세자의 원당인 축성전을 설치하게 되었다. 그 결과 송광사에 부과되던 각종 잡역이 크게 줄어들었고 왕실로부터 불공 비용 명목으로 전답을 하사받는 등의 경제적 혜택을 얻게 되었다. 19세기 송광사는 조선사회의 혼란, 불교계의 경제적 어려움에 더해 사찰의 대형 참화까지 발생하는 위기를 맞이했지만, 승려들의 적극적인 중창 의지와 왕실원당 유치를 통해 어려움을 극복해나갔다. In 18th century, when it generally grew in the area of society, economics and culture, also has grown up Buddhism during the Joseon Dynasty. Temples which had been burned out during the two great wars, were restored and bases for Buddhism were expanded. But Joseon Dynasty in 19th century was caught in a vicious circle that monopolization of power and commercial business caused to breakdown of civil economy and civil riot. It was in 19th century when had been the one of the most difficult time in Buddhism during the Joseon Dynasty. It was not simply caused by political suppression, social and economical absurdity in the Joseon Dynasty was transferred to Buddhism. In spite of those difficulties, Buddhism in 19th century exerted oneself to keep its livelihood and to promote development of temples. The simplest way to preserve power and economy of celebrated temples was appointed to the Royal Buddhist Shrines(王室願堂). The Royal Buddhist Shrines were exempted from paying taxes and financially benefited from the royal family. Also were those evaded from public service. Songgwang Temple(松廣寺) was one of the Royal Buddhist Shrines from the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty. It was burned down in 1842 and reconstructed by chief monk Yongun in Songgwang Temple. In 1902 at the time of King Gojong it was also appointed to the Royal Buddhist Shrines for commemoration of king's good health and longevity. Songgwang Temple had been closely connected with the royal family in the Joseon Dynasty. And it invited actively various kinds of the Royal Buddhist Shrines.

조선후기 금강산 일대의 비구니 암자와 비구니의 활동 : 『유점사본말사지』에 기재된 비구니 명단을 중심으로

탁효정(TAK, Hyojeong) 불교학연구회 2022 불교학연구 Vol.70 No.-

본 연구에서는 『유점사본말사지』에 기재된 비구니 명단을 토대로 조선후기 금강산 일대의 비구니의 거주 암자와 비구니 활동의 특징을 고찰하였다. 『유점사본말사지』에는 총 156건의 조선시대 비구니 명단이 기재돼 있는데, 중복되는 법명을 정리하면 총 136명이다. 조선전기에 활동한 비구니는 확인되지 않으며, 17세기에 활동한 비구니가 1명, 18세기는 6명, 19세기는 52명, 20세기는 77명으로 조사되었다. 『유점사본말사지』에 나타난 비구니 암자와 비구니 활동의 특징은 다섯 가지로 요약할 수 있다. 첫째, 유점사 본말사와 부속암자 가운데 비구니 거주 암자는 총 9개로, 대부분 19~20세기 초 비구니의 주도로 건립되었다. 둘째, 비구니는 비구니 암자뿐만 아니라 소속사찰과 주요 수행처의 화주 또는 시주자로 역할을 하였다. 셋째, 비구니 암자의 건물 구성은 요사를 중심으로 배치되었고, 요사에서는 주거와 수행이 함께 이루어진 것으로 보인다. 넷째, 비구니 암자의 주지는 소속사찰의 주지가 겸임했다. 다섯째, 비구와 비구니는 한 사찰에 소속돼 있을 경우에도 별개의 문파로 구별되었다. 본고에서는 이 같은 내용을 통해 금강산에 여성출가자들의 수행문화가 이어져왔고, 비구니들이 금강산 사찰 운영의 한 축을 담당했다는 사실을 확인하였다. This study examines the bhikkhuni temples at Geumgang Mountain and the activities of the main bhikkhunis at Geumgang Mountain during the late Joseon Dynasty, based on a database containing the list of bhikkhunis recorded in Yujeomsabonmalsaji. A total of 158 bhikkhunis (excluding duplicate names) are listed in Yujeomsabonmalsaji, of which 136 were active during the Joseon Dynasty. One person was active in the 17th century, six people in the 18th century, 52 people in the 19th century, and 77 people in the 20th century. The characteristics of the bhikkhuni hermitage and bhikkhuni activities, as shown in “Yujeomsa Bonmalsaji,” can be summarized in five ways. First, among the Bonmalsa Temple and annexed hermitages of Yujeomsa Temple, there were a total of nine hermitages where bhikkhunis lived, and most of these hermitages were built under the leadership of bhikkhunis in the early 19th to early 20th centuries. Second, bhikkhunis served as supporters or founders of agency temples and performance sites, as well as the bhikkhuni hermitages. Third, the composition of the building of the bhikkhuni hermitages was arranged around Yosa, and it seems that housing and practice were carried out together in Yosa. Fourth, the chief monk of a bhikkhuni hermitage was also the chief monk of an agency temple. Fifth, even if they belonged to a temple, they were classified as separate literary groups. Through these records, it is possible to confirm the historical fact that the practice culture of bhikkhunis continued at Geumgang Mountain, and that bhikkhunis were one of the pillars of the operation of the temples at Geumgang Mountain.

조선 전기 왕실불교의 전개양상과 특징

탁효정(Hyo-Jeong Tak) 중앙승가대학교 불교학연구원 2018 불교와 사회 Vol.10 No.2

본고는 조선 전기 왕실불교의 특징을 여성들의 불교신앙을 중심으로 고찰한 연구이다. 조선 전기는 유교적 통치체제 확립을 원하는 유학자 관료들과 불교신앙을 유지하려 했던 왕실여성들의 갈등이 점점 더 심화된 시기이다. 왕들은 신료들과 함께 불교의 사회경제적 기반을 축소시키는 각종 정책들을 마련하였지만, 왕실 내에서는 여성들의 불교신앙이 꾸준히 지속되었다. 이 시기의 비빈들은 고려의 전통을 계승해 왕실의 복을 비는 사찰을 짓고, 경전을 간행하였다. 세종대부터 성종대까지 다수의 후궁들이 연달아 승려가 되었고, 궁을 사찰로 개조해 살아갔다. 특히 정치적 영향력이 큰 대비들은 남편과 아들에게 영향력을 행사해 불교를 수호하기 위한 노력을 기울였다. 본고에서는 조선 전기 왕실여성들의 불교신앙이 지닌 특징을 세가지로 정리하였다. 첫째는 후궁들의 자발적인 출가가 지속적으로 이루어졌다는 점이고, 둘째는 적극적인 신행과 불교옹호가 계속되었다는 점이며, 셋째는 조선 후기에 비해 구도적 성향이 매우 강했다는 점이다. 조선 전기 왕실여성들의 불교신앙은 상당히 적극적이면서도 자발적이었다. 이는 여성들의 권한이 조선 후기에 비해 훨씬 더 컸기 때문이고, 불교신앙의 수준 또한 높았기 때문이라 할 수 있다. 조선 전기 왕실여성들의 불교신앙은 불교가 조선 후기까지 지속될 수 있는 중요한 자양분으로 역할하였다. This paper is a study of the characteristics of the royal Buddhism of early Joseon Dynasty focusing on women's Buddhism. Early Joseon Dynasty is a time of conflict between Confucian bureaucrats who want to establish a Confucian ruling system and royal women who wanted to maintain Buddhism. The kings, along with their scholars, prepared various policies to reduce the socio-economic basis of Buddhism, but the Buddhist beliefs of women continued in the royal family steadily. The Queens and concubines of this period inherited the Koryo tradition and built temples for the royal family, and published scriptures. Many concubines from King Sejong to King Sungjong became monks successively and remodeled the palace into temples. In particular, the Great Queens with great political influence exerted an effort to protect Buddhism by influencing the husband and the son. This article summarizes the characteristics of the Buddhist faith of the royal women of Early Joseon Dynasty in three ways. The first is that voluntary renunciation of the concubines was continued, the second was the active faith and the advocacy for Buddhism continued, and the third was that the ascetic tendency was stronger than the late Joseon Dynasty. The Buddhist beliefs of the royal women in Early Joseon Dynasty were quite active and voluntary. This is because women's authority was much greater than in the late Joseon period, and the level of Buddhist faith was also high. The Buddhist faith of royal women in Early Joseon Dynasty served as an important nourishment for Buddhism to last until the late Joseon Dynasty.

조선 전기 정업원(淨業院)의 성격과 역대 주지 - 조선시대 정업원의 운영실태(1)

탁효정 ( Tak Hyo-jeong ) 한국여성사학회 2015 여성과 역사 Vol.- No.22

이 논문은 왕실 비구니 사찰인 정업원의 치폐과정과 역대 주지의 특성을 통해 조선전기 정업원의 성격을 이해하는데 목적을 두고 있다. 한국에서는 고대부터 왕실여성의 출가사실이 확인되며, 정업원이라는 사찰명은 고려시대부터 나타나고 있다. 조선시대 정업원은 이같은 전통을 이어받아 왕실여성들의 출가처 내지 기도처로 이용되었다. 정업원은 조선초부터 왕실의 지원을 받으며 운영되었지만 유학자 관료들의 철폐 요청 등에 의해 세 차례 철폐되었다. 하지만 왕실에서 불교신앙이 계속 이어지고 있었기 때문에 세조와 문정왕후에 의해 정업원은 복설되었고, 공식적으로 폐사된 시기에도 정업원 비구니들은 승가공동체를 계속 영위해 나갔다. 조선전기의 정업원은 왕실로부터 정기적인 경제적 지원을 받았으며, 승려들의 도성 출입이 금지된 상황에서도 궁궐 바로 곁에 위치한 채 왕실사찰로서의 특혜를 누릴 수 있었다. 실록에서 확인되는 정업원 주지는 총 7명으로, 혜화궁주 이씨, 소도군 부인 심씨, 정안왕후 언니 김씨, 비구니 해민, 유자환 부인 윤씨, 수춘군 부인정씨, 연산군 후궁 숙의 곽씨 등이다. 이들 모두 조선전기에 해당되는 인물들로, 비구니 해민을 제외하면 모두 왕실과 친인척 관계인 여성들이었다. 또한 해민과 정안왕후 언니 김씨, 유자환 부인 외의 나머지 4명은 모두 남편이 정적에 의해 살해되거나 시가, 친정이 역적으로 몰려 멸문지화를 당한 경우였다. 이로 볼 때 정업원은 몰락한 왕실여성들이 의탁할 수 있는 의지처로 기능했음을 확인할 수 있다. 정업원에는 유자환의 부인 같은 일반 사대부가 여성들도 포함돼 있었는데, 이들 또한 안전하게 출가할 수 있는 곳을 찾아 정업원을 선택한 것이었다. 조선전기에는 왕이 훙어한 직후 후궁들이 출가를 하는 경우가 잦았는데, 이들은 정업원으로 가지 않은 대신 정업원을 통해 승려계(僧侶戒)를 받았다. 이처럼 정업원은 조선왕실의 불교신앙을 이어나가는 신행기구로 활용되었으며, 몰락한 왕실여성들이 의지할 수 있는 의지처로 역할했다. This paper explains the characteristics of Jungupwon(淨業院) in early Joseon Dynasty, that is, Royal Temple for Buddhist Nun, which includes the process of installation and repeal of Jungupwon and the characters of chief nuns. As the name of temple, Jungupwon appeared from Koryo Dynasty and it was used for prayer site or through which become a Buddhist nun from Joseon Dynasty. Jungupwon has run under the support of royal family, has abolished for four times against the demonstration of confucian scholars. Because in royal family religious belief for buddha has been succeeded, Jungupwon was reestablished in the age of king Sejo and queen Munjeong. Even in the age of abolishment nuns in Jungupwon have managed the Buddhist community. Jungupwon in early Joseon Dynasty has economically supported from royal family regularly. Like this, Jungupwon has received special treatment as royal family`s temple. According to The True Record of the Joseon Dynasty Chief nuns of Jungupwon is 7. All of them belonged to the early Joseon Dynasty and 6 of them had relation to royal family and its kin. In the case of 4, her family were exterminated by rebel. So Jungupwon has also functioned as relief place for ruined royal family`s women. Not only royal family`s women but also gentry women were belonged to Jungupwon, and also royal concubine became Buddhist nuns through Jungupwon. Instead of living in Jungupwon, they received the priesthood. Jungupwon was the place of Buddhist religious belief, and also was the place of relief for the ruined royal family`s women.

수학적 반성 활동이 학업성취도와 수학적 태도에 미치는 영향

탁효정,김상룡,Tak, Hyo-Jung,Kim, Sang-Lyong 영남수학회 2011 East Asian mathematical journal Vol.27 No.4

Mathematics is to reflect on your or other people's psychological mathematic activities. Thus, learners need to reflect on their mathematical activities in order to cultivate mathematical thinking attitude and perceive learning contents. For this study, first of all, two classes of the fifth grade (29 students in experimental group and 31 students in control group) in 'Y' elementary school in Dae-gu city were selected as research targets and post-test of learning achievement and mathematical attitude examination were carried out in order to verify the differences of learning achievement and mathematical attitudes between experimental and control groups. The findings of this study mean that students' learning achievement and mathematical attitudes can be improved by applying mathematical reflective activities to the actual class.

납중독에 대한 마늘의 치료와 방어효과

이용환,박명호,최명원,천봉권,허방,탁효정,황인철,Lee, Yong-Hwan,Park, Myung-Ho,Choi, Myung-Won,Chun, Bong-Kwon,Hur, Bang,Tak, Hyo-Jung,Hwang, In-Chul 한국생명과학회 2001 생명과학회지 Vol.11 No.6

마늘 속에서 중금속 중독 시에 킬에이트 작용을 일으킬수 있다는 다량의 황 화합물이 함유되어 있으므로 납 중독 흰쥐에서 그 효과를 확인하고자 본 연구를 실시한 결과 마늘 500mg/kg 투여 흰쥐군에서 유의한 납 배설량의 증가가 있었으며, 납과 마늘의 동시에 투여했을 경우에는 납 단독 투여군 보다 신장에서의 병리조직학적 변화가 경미한 것을 관찰할수 있었다. 이러한 결과는 마늘이 납 중독에대한 킬레이트제로서의 이용 가능성이 있음을 나타내고 있다. Lead poisoning is currently one of the major public health problems in industrialized countries. Several chelating agents have been developed and used to treat the lead poisoning. It was recently proposed that garlic, having a large quantity of S-S compounds, may react readily with lead, producing various sulfur componds, and thus provide curative and protective effects on the lead toxicity. The present study was undertaken to evaluate this possibility in experimental animals. The garlic treatment on rats pre-exposed to lead significantly enhanced urinary excretion of lead at a garlic dose of 500 mg/kg and decreased the bloon level of lead at both 250 and 500 mg/kg doses. The administration of grilic 500mg/kg along with lead significantly alleviated the renal histological alterations induced by lead. These results suggest that garilic has a curative as well as a protective effect against lead poisoning , thus it may act as a chelator of lead.

將來 人口變化에 따른 勞動力 수급에 관한 연구

탁효정,이시백 서울大學校保健大學院 1998 國民保健硏究所硏究論叢 Vol.8 No.1

The labor force has been the important impetus to the economic development of Korea for the last 30 years. The change of labor force, which is subject to the change of population size and structure, has the great impact on the size and characteristics of economically active population. Accordingly, the purpose of the study is to estimate the optimum labor supply by analyzing the change of economically productive manpower along with the size and structure of population to estimate the scope of economically active population. The present study revealed that the scope of economically productive population had increased by the number 12,940,000 (75.4%) for the last 20 years(1970-1990) while it is anticipated to increase by the number of 5,411,000 (18.0%) for the next 20 years(1990-2020). As for the estimation of economic activity rate in accordance with data of more developed country, the rate is expected to be 76.4% in 2000, 77.0% in 2010, 77.6% in 2020 in case of males while it will be 48.9% in 2000, 49.5% in 2010, 50.5% in 2020, which will show the steady increase. Regarding the scope of economically active population, the number of males are expected to be 16,794,000 and that of females, 9,948,000 with a total of 26,922,000 by the year 2020. The number of economically active population is expected to increase up to 5,961,000(54.1%) in case of males and 2,494,000(33.1%), in case of females for the next 20 years(1990-2010).

부산 지역 해수 중 금속 농도 분석

안영애,탁효정,황인철 고신대학교보건과학연구소 2003 보건과학연구소보 Vol.13 No.-

Lead, chromium, cadmium, copper, arsenic, mercury and zinc of sea water sampled in 17 sites of Busan coast were analyzed. The results were as follows: 1. The pH values of samples were in the ranges of 8.65-9.28 (mean 9.13), and basic. And the mean salinity was 2.57% (1.57∼2.75%). 2. The mean levels of lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury were 0.073mg/L, 0.076mg/L, 0.085mg/L and 0.012mg/L, respectively. These relatively high concentrations were estimated resulting from industry waste. 3. The mean zinc level of samples was 0.131mg/L, and near the same as of ocean. 4. The mean copper of samples was 0.018mg/L and seemed to be low. 5. Lead was significantly correlated with arsenic (r=0.378) and zinc (r=0.456), while arsenic also was correlated with zinc (r=0.49). And pH was highly correlated with salinity (r=0.881). Lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury, and zinc level of 7 metals exceeded the legal requirements of seawater quality, which seemed to be due to sewage and ship wastes. Therefore the comprehensive strategies to keep clean seawater should be carried out.

영남지역 온천수의 금속 농도 분포와 관련 요인 분석

권준철,황인철,탁효정 고신대학교보건과학연구소 2001 보건과학연구소보 Vol.11 No.-

The Hymenoptera was investigated to understand the ecosystem of Mt. Bongrae at the Islet Yeungdo in Busan. The hymenopteran fauna was consisted of 123 species belonging to 191 genera and 13 families. Vespula vulgaris (Linne´) was the dominant species occupying 13.14% of the total hymenopteran individuals. The following species were Vespa crabro flavofasciata Cameron, Vespa mandarinia Cameron, Vespa analis parallela Andre and Formica japonica Motschulsky. The Vespidae was the most successful group. The Megachilidae and Apidae were rather less than expected due to the poor flora of Mt. Bongrae. It was suggested to restore the diversity of Hymenoptera at Mt. Bongrae to build up the ecological quality.