콘스탄티우스 2세에 의한 새로운 다자지배의 실험 - 갈루스의 카이사르 임명의 구조적 속성 및 의미

손태창 한국서양고대역사문화학회 2019 서양고대사연구 Vol.55 No.-

In the year of 350 namely in the middle of 4th century Constan was killed and it was led to the reorganization of the empire. Consequently a new Caesar was established in the Roman East. The appointment of Gallus as Caesar had not a few political implications. .His appointment was the result of the plan aiming at the succession of power within the family of Constantinus. It was a curious matter whether he would stay as ruler in the east further. This system was intrinsically different from the past multi ruler system in its origin and showed an unusual structural nature. The consequence was the tragic execution of the Caesar because Constantius would trust him no more, and the rule of Gallus became gradually more suspicious to Constantius. If we consider the side of Gallus he could not endure his vassal-like position under Constantius. In the end he was forced to confront not only the court officials who had been established by Constantius, but also the local leading class. He also treated with them harshly. This brought about the intervention of Constantius and cost the life of Gallus. What is clear from the case of Gallus is that Constantius’ multi ruler system was problematic. It was made in a hurry and therefore was limited in terms of durability and stability. This aspect might be a structural cause that led the relationship between of both persons to be uncomfortable and uncontrollable later. Gallus seemed to accept Constantius as his superior ruler ideologically, but in reality he wanted to try to take over the governance for the east autonomically. Thus he punished the local nobles in Antiochia who were responsible for the grain price, and at the same time executed the provocative court officials Domitianus and Montius who were antagonistic towards his authority. This action of Gallus might not have been against Constantius but aimed at the strengthening of his power base and establishing his rule independently. However Constantius regarded it as a challenge to himself. Then he lured Gallus cautiously and executed him in the end. The fact that Gallus authority was established by Constantius, and that the system was experimental, led to an unstable structure that could suffer change at any time. This fragility in the Multi Ruler System reflects its temporal character. Therefore the system could be decided by the supreme power, Constantius, regardless of the will of Gallus. 서기 4세기 중엽 즉 350년에 콘스탄스가 죽음으로써 로마제국의 전체적인 지배체제의 재편 상황에서 생긴 콘스탄티우스에 의한 갈루스의 카이사르 임명은 많은 정치적 함의를 지닌다. 콘스탄티누스 집안의 권력계승이라는 명분과 원칙에 의해 세워진 갈루스가 동방에서 계속 존속할 수 있는지가 관심을 불러일으킨다. 종래의 다자지배체제와는 그 발생에서 이미 다른 한계와 구조적 속성이 내재되어 있기 때문이다. 결과는 353-4년에 걸쳐 갈루스가 콘스탄티우스의 신임을 얻지 못한 이유로 그리고 갈루스의 동방에서의 치세가 그의 의심을 불러일으킨 탓에 처형되는 비극을 맞이하게 되었다. 갈루스 입장에서 보면 가신적인 상태에서 콘스탄티우스의 하수인과 같은 기능을 해야 하는 것이 견디기 어려웠을 것이다. 결국 동방을 멀리서도 장악하려는 의도로 콘스탄티우스가 애초에 세운 관직자들 및 토착 지배층들과 대립해야 했고 결국 이들에게 강경하게 대응했다. 이것은 바로 콘스탄티우스의 개입을 초래했고 갈루스의 생명을 댓가로 지불하게 했다. 갈루스의 사례를 통해 확인이 되는 바는 350년의 상황에서 급조된 다자지배체제가 지니는 지속성과 안정성의 문제이다. 이 체제는 적어도 양 자의 관계가 차후 불편해지고 걷잡을 수 없는 파경으로 이르게 한 것이다. 갈루스는 정황상 그의 상위지배자로 콘스탄티우스를 관념적으로 인정했을 것이지만 실제 동방에서의 통치는 스스로가 자치적으로 수행하고자 했던 것으로 보인다. 그런즉 곡물가격에 문제를 야기한 안티오키아 토착귀족들을 처단했고 그의 권위에 도발적 언동을 서슴지 않았던 도미티아누스와 몬티우스를 처형해버린 것이다. 이것은 아마도 콘스탄티우스에 대한 도전이라기보다는 스스로의 입지를 다지고 동방통치를 독립적으로 해내기 위한 의도로 보인다. 하지만 이 사태를 지켜보고 판단을 내려야 하는 콘스탄티우스는 적어도 도전으로 여겼다. 그리고 갈루스를 치밀하게 유인하였고 처형해 버렸다. 콘스탄티우스가 세운 새로운 다자지배와 그 체제에 실험적으로 투입된 갈루스는 궁극적으로 언제든지 변할 수 있는 구조적 속성을 반영한다. 갈루스가 그 선을 넘었을 때에 아마도 갈루스의 의지와는 상관없이 콘스탄티우스가 그 체제를 다시 변화시키는 결정으로 나아갔다고 해석된다. 이 다자지배체제는 가변적이고 최고권력자가 재조정할 수 있는 일시적 방편이었던 것이다.

서기 4세기 로마역사가 암미아누스의 갈루스 서술 - 갈루스 통치와 콘스탄티우스와의 관계에 대한 서술의 문제 (353-354년) -

손태창 대구사학회 2023 대구사학 Vol.152 No.-

갈루스는 351-354년에 걸쳐 로마제국의 동방지역을 다스린 통치자였다. 그는 로마 황제 콘스탄티우스 2세(337-361년 재위)를 대신해서 그 황제가 원래 다스리던 동방에 가서 대행적인 통치자 역할을 물려받아야 했다. 갈루스에 관해 어느 다른 사료들보다 많은 내용을 담고 있는 것이 바로 역사서술자 암미아누스의 서술이다. 그의 저술에서 제 14권에 광범위하게 우리는 갈루스 치세에 일어난 일들에 대해 듣게 된다. 그런데 놀랍게도 여기서 우리는 갈루스가 당시 많은 궁정의 관직자들에 대해 폭력적으로 대했고 심지어 다수의 관직자들이 고문을 당하거나 죽임을 당하게 되었다는 진술을 접하게 된다. 암미아누스는 갈루스 통치의 문제성에 대한 많은 사례들을 기록한다. 독자들이 그 사료에 대한 비평적인 입장을 취하지 않는다면 쉽게 갈루스가 본래 폭력적이었으며 통치자로서 부적격한 면이 강한 자라고 믿어버릴 수도 있다. 암미아누스 서술에서 더욱 놀라운 것은 그는 충분하고 구체적인 증거를 가지고 진술하는 것이 아니라는 점이다. 단지 그는 갈루스의 특정한 그리고 과도한 행위들에 대해 진술하는 것이다. 본고에서는 암미아누스의 이러한 점에 대해 초점을 두고 그것이 지니는 구조적 문제점을 논의하고자 한다. 일명 “암시적” 역사가로 일컬어지는 암미아누스는 그의 진술을 입증하는 데에 매우 무관심하다. 우리는 비평적 시각과 다른 사료들과의 대조속에서 암미아누스 진술의 신빙성과 정확성 등에 대해 실체적 접근을 해야 할 것이다. Gallus Caesar was ruler over the eastern Roman territory during the years of 351-354. He had to take over the substitutional governance in place of the emperor Constantius II (who ruled as emperor 337-361). Historical information on Gallus was preserved by the historian Ammianus much more than any other sources. In the fourteenth book of his famous work, 『Res Gestae』 it is revealed what has happened under the rule of Gallus. Surprisingly, here we learn that Gallus exercised an incredibly violent rule over many court officials and most of them were said to have been tortured or killed brutally. Ammianus describes many examples of the problematic rule of Gallus. The readers can be persuaded easily that Gallus is by nature violent and not suitable as a ruler if they do not maintain a critical eye toward that source. An even more surprising problem in the writing of Ammianus is the fact that he does not prove his descriptions with enough concrete evidences. He just states particular and excessive actions on the part of Gallus. The thesis focuses on this point regarding Ammianus, and intends to argue its own structural problematic. The “allusive” historian is very indifferent to the verification of his statements. We need to read the contents of the historian's writing critically and compare with other sources.

Protective effect of Buddha's Temple extract against tert-butyl hydroperoxide stimulation-induced oxidative stress in DF-1 cells

Eun Hye Park,Sung-Jo Kim Asian Australasian Association of Animal Productio 2023 Animal Bioscience Vol.36 No.7

Objective: This study aimed to determine the protective efficacy of Buddha's Temple (BT) extract against tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced oxidative stress in Gallus gallus chicken embryo fibroblast cell line (DF-1) and its effects on the cell lipid metabolism. Methods: In this experimental study, Gallus gallus DF-1 fibroblast cells were pretreated with BT 10^-7 for 24 hours, followed by their six-hour exposure to t-BHP (100 μM). Water-soluble tetrazolium salt-8 (WST-8) assays were performed, and the growth curve was computed. The intracellular gene expression changes caused by BT extract were confirmed through quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Flow cytometry, oil red O staining experiment, and thin-layer chromatography were performed for the detection of intracellular metabolic mechanism changes. Results: The WST-8 assay results showed that the BT pretreatment of Gallus gallus DF-1 fibroblast cell increased their cell survival rate by 1.08%±0.04%, decreased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level by 0.93%±0.12% even after exposure to oxidants, and stabilized mitochondrial activity by 1.37%±0.36%. In addition, qPCR results confirmed that the gene expression levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), TIR domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-beta (TICAM1), and glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) were regulated, which contributed to cell stabilization. Thin-layer chromatography and oil red O analyses showed a clear decrease in the contents of lipid metabolites such as triacylglycerol and free fatty acids. Conclusion: In this study, we confirmed that the examined BT extract exerted selective protective effects on Gallus gallus DF-1 fibroblast cells against cell damage caused by t-BHP, which is a strong oxidative inducer. Furthermore, we established that this extract significantly reduced the intracellular ROS accumulation due to oxidative stress, which contributes to an increase in poultry production and higher incomes.

Screening the potential of Gallus gallus Domesticus (Black Chicken) for osteochondral tissue engineering applications and characterization of scaffolds composed of GG-MA / β-TCP doped with Zn and Mn

김다윗,조훈휘,김한솔,이기원,강길선 한국공업화학회 2018 한국공업화학회 연구논문 초록집 Vol.2018 No.0

The purpose of this study is to characterize Gallus gallus var Domesticus (Yeonsan ogolgye) demineralized bone powder. DBP have showed to promote the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow and other medical effects. Also, the melanin extracted together with HAp from the GD has a positive effect in osteoblast differentiation. For the analysis of DBP, DNA quantification test, histochemical staining were conducted to Evaluate the Morphological characterization with optical microscopy. For the analysis of composed scaffold, SEM, compression test, FT-IR, XRD were measured. Collectively, in the case of DBP, The presence of melanin and Collagen type-I in DBP was confirmed. And in the case of scaffolds, composed scaffolds showed a suitable macro- and microporosity and high interconnectivity to support cells adhesion, proliferation.

연산 오골계 물 추출물이 조골세포와 파골세포의 활성에 미치는 영향

유한석 ( Han Seok Yoo ),정강현 ( Kang Hyun Chung ),이권재 ( Kwon Jai Lee ),김동희 ( Dong Hee Kim ),안정희 ( Jeung Hee An ) 한국미생물생명공학회(구 한국산업미생물학회) 2015 한국미생물·생명공학회지 Vol.43 No.4

본 연구는 연산 오골계의 물 추출물을 이용하여 MG-63 조골세포와 RAW 264.7 파골세포의 분화에 미치는 영향을 분석하였다. 조골세포의 분화에 미치는 영향을 관찰하기 위해 ALP 활성 분석과 alizarin red 염색을 통해 골 석회화를 측정하였다. 그리고 RAW 264.7 파골세포의 분화 억제 활성을 확인하기 위해 TRAP 활성과 염색을 분석 측정하였다. 연산오골계 물 추출물을 농도별(250-1,000 μg/ml)로 처리한 결과 조골세포와 파골세포에서 세포독성을 나타내지 않았다. ALP 활성은 3년산 암탉 육질이 133.8%, 3년산 수탉 육질은 129.6%로 육질이 껍질보다 조골세포 분화력이 높았다. 그리고 육질에서는 3년산이 1년산보다 ALP 활성이 높으나 껍질에서는 1년산이 3년산보다 조골세포 분화능력이 높았다. 성별 간 ALP 활성은 전체적으로 암탉이 수탉보다 높은 ALP 활성을 보였다. 또한, 골 석회화 능력은 3년산 암탉 육질이 연령과 성별을 통틀어 124.3%로 가장 뛰어났으며 TRAP 활성은 3년산 수탉 육질이 31.8%로 연령과 성별을 통틀어 억제 활성이 가장 뛰어났다. 연산 오골계 물 추출물은 조골세포 분화능력이 뛰어나 골의 석회화를 촉진하는 능력이 뛰어났으며 파골세포의 분화를 억제하여 골 흡수를 억제하는 능력이 뛰어났다. 이에 연산 오골계는 골 기능 강화와 골 관련질환에 대한 예방과 치료에 효과가 있을 것으로 보인다. The effects of water extracts of Gallus gallus var. domesticus (Yeonsan ogolgye, GD) on the activities of osteoblast differentiation and the restraint of osteoclast formation were investigated. The water extract of GD in the human osteoblast “MG-63” cell, was examined in relation to alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and alizarin red stains. In order to observe the effects of osteoclasts formation, we analyzed RAW 264.7 cell tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity and TRAP stains. The ALP activity of the water extract of hen and cock flesh (3 years) were 133.8% and 129.6%, respectively. The ALP activity of flesh extracts was also higher than that of the skin extracts. Concerning the effects of age, the 3 years old flesh extracts had a higher activity than that of the one year old extracts. However the activity of the 3 years old skin extracts was lower than that of the one year old extracts. For gender conditions, the ALP activity of the hen extract was higher than that of the cock. The degree bone mineralization in the three years old hen flesh exhibited the highest rate, at 124.3%, amongst all the groups. The TRAP activity of the flesh extracts of the three years old cock revealed the lowest rate, at 31.8%, compared to the control. Our results demonstrate that the water extract of GD increases bone mineralization and osteoblast differentiation activity in MG-63 cells and enhances the inhibitory activity of bone-resorption in RAW 264.7 cells. In conclusion, the water extracts of GD seem to be effective in the prevention and treatment of bone related disorders.

Biochemical Analysis of Pericardial Fluid in Chicks of Gallus domesticus Suffering from Hydropericardium Syndrome

Mujeeb, K.A.,Rabb, S.,Shakoori, A.R. Asian Australasian Association of Animal Productio 1998 Animal Bioscience Vol.11 No.3

The liver extract of chicks, Gallus domesticus, suffering from hydropericardium syndrome (HPS) was inoculated intraperitoneally into healthy chicks to produce HPS. After inoculation the blood serum and the pericardial fluid of the newly infected chicks were analyzed, at regular intervals for a total period of 72 hours for concentration of proteins, $K^+$ ions, $Na^+$ ions and the LDH activity. The protein content was significantly decreased both in the blood serum (30%) and the pericardial fluid (39%) within 24 hours of inoculation, which was then maintained during the subsequent period. The $K^+$ ions and the LDH activity, on the other hand, were significantly increased in the blood serum (26% and 169%, respectively) as well as the pericardial fluid (131% and 217%, respectively) within 24 hours of inoculation. After 72 hours this increase was, respectively, 43% and 191% in blood serum, and 153% and 200% in the pericardial fluid. Accumulation of $K^+$ ions, and decrease of protein and $Na^+$ ions in the pericardial fluid indicate homoestatic imbalance, which may prove fatal. The increased LDH activity is indicative of heptocytic damage.

Effect of Hexavalent Chromium on Egg Laying Capacity, Hatchability of Eggs, Thickness of Egg Shell and Post-Hatching Development of Gallus domesticus

Asmatullah, Asmatullah,Asma, A.,Latif, A.,Shakoori, A.R. Asian Australasian Association of Animal Productio 1999 Animal Bioscience Vol.12 No.6

Hexavalent chromium (CrVI) was fed to one day old chicks of Gallus domesticus in the form of different concentrations (250 and 500 mg/kg feed) of potassium dichromate mixed with the feed, ad libitum, for 32 weeks. After 20 weeks of feeding, the total body weight was higher in the low dose (260 mg/kg (feed) group and lower in the high dose (500 mg/kg feed) group, as compared with the control chicks. After 32 weeks of feeding, however, the total body weight was significantly decreased in both the treated groups. Egg laying was enhanced. Fertility remained unaffected, whereas hatchability was considerably decreased after CrVI-treatment. The egg shell thickness increased significantly (13%). Cr was deposited in a dose dependent manner in the liver and lungs. Some structural derangements in liver were also noted in treated chicks. The results of this study i.e., rapid ageing, excessive Cr deposition, decreased hatchability and hepatotoxicity indicate toxic effects of CrVI.

Romaios Worshipping Isis: Defining Augustus in the Roman Province of Egypt

배소연 한국서양고대역사문화학회 2022 서양고대사연구 Vol.65 No.-

This paper examines the complexity innate in defining the status of Augustus in the Roman province of Egypt during the transitional period of the early Principate. The propagandistic war that Octavian waged against Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony had Octavian adopting hostile attitudes toward Egypt, as attested in his refusal to visit the Apis bull and two cases of prohibition of the Egyptian rites inside the pomerium in the early phase of the Augustan Principate. After its annexation into the Roman Empire, however, the province of Egypt became the breadbasket of the Roman Empire. Recognizing its significance, Octavian marked the province of Egypt as exceptional by recruiting the praefectus Alexandriae et Aegypti from the equestrian class, thereby keeping senators or others who could threaten his authority from seizing this prosperous province. Nonetheless, both the Romans and the Egyptians seemed to have underestimated the special care that Octavian paid to the rule of Egypt. The first prefect of Egypt, Cornelius Gallus, encroached upon Augustus’ supreme authority by presenting himself not as an intermediary between Rome and Egypt, but as the de facto ruler of Egypt. By removing Cornelius Gallus from office, Augustus made it clear where the supreme authority lay without officially taking the crown as pharaoh. Without trying to understand Octavian’s efforts not to be seen as monarch in Rome, Egyptians visualized Octavian/Augustus as the new pharaoh who worshipped Isis and the other Egyptian gods on their temple reliefs. Augustus did not prohibit such depictions of himself in Egypt, partially because it was unlikely that the Roman people would have learned about them. At the same time, it must have been beneficial when ruling this province to let Egyptians locate the new ruler in the long tradition of divine kingship in the Hellenistic world. In sum, the early phase of the Roman rule of Egypt witnessed Augustus’ trials and errors in the peculiar province of Egypt and the efforts of the Egyptians to understand the new Roman rule in their own ways.

Monitoring of Chicken RNA Integrity as a Function of Prolonged Postmortem Duration

Yuwares Malila,Yanee Srimarut,Juthawut U-chupaj,Gale Strasburg,Wonnop Visessanguan 아세아·태평양축산학회 2015 Animal Bioscience Vol.28 No.11

Gene expression profiling has offered new insights into postmortem molecular changes associated with meat quality. To acquire reliable transcript quantification, high quality RNA is required. The objective of this study was to analyze integrity of RNA isolated from chicken skeletal muscle (pectoralis major) and its capability of serving as the template in quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) as a function of postmortem intervals representing the end-points of evisceration, carcass chilling and aging stages in chicken abattoirs. Chicken breast muscle was dissected from the carcasses (n = 6) immediately after evisceration, and one-third of each sample was instantly snap-frozen and labeled as 20 min postmortem. The remaining muscle was stored on ice until the next rounds of sample collection (1.5 h and 6 h postmortem). The delayed postmortem duration did not significantly affect A260/A280 and A260/A230 (p≥0.05), suggesting no altered purity of total RNA. Apart from a slight decrease in the 28s:18s ribosomal RNA ratio in 1.5 h samples (p<0.05), the value was not statistically different between 20 min and 6 h samples (p≥0.05), indicating intact total RNA up to 6 h. Abundance of reference genes encoding beta-actin (ACTB), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), hypoxanthineguanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT), peptidylprolylisomerase A (PPIA) and TATA box-binding protein (TBP) as well as meatquality associated genes (insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isozyme 4 (PDK4), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARD) were investigated using qPCR. Transcript abundances of ACTB, GAPDH, HPRT, and PPIA were significantly different among all postmortem time points (p<0.05). Transcript levels of PDK4 and PPARD were significantly reduced in the 6 h samples (p<0.05). The findings suggest an adverse effect of a prolonged postmortem duration on reliability of transcript quantification in chicken skeletal muscle. For the best RNA quality, chicken skeletal muscle should be immediately collected after evisceration or within 20 min postmortem, and rapidly preserved by deep freezing.

Monitoring of Chicken RNA Integrity as a Function of Prolonged Postmortem Duration

Malila, Yuwares,Srimarut, Yanee,U-chupaj, Juthawut,Strasburg, Gale,Visessanguan, Wonnop Asian Australasian Association of Animal Productio 2015 Animal Bioscience Vol.28 No.11

Gene expression profiling has offered new insights into postmortem molecular changes associated with meat quality. To acquire reliable transcript quantification, high quality RNA is required. The objective of this study was to analyze integrity of RNA isolated from chicken skeletal muscle (pectoralis major) and its capability of serving as the template in quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) as a function of postmortem intervals representing the end-points of evisceration, carcass chilling and aging stages in chicken abattoirs. Chicken breast muscle was dissected from the carcasses (n = 6) immediately after evisceration, and one-third of each sample was instantly snap-frozen and labeled as 20 min postmortem. The remaining muscle was stored on ice until the next rounds of sample collection (1.5 h and 6 h postmortem). The delayed postmortem duration did not significantly affect $A_{260}/A_{280}$ and $A_{260}/A_{230}$ ($p{\geq}0.05$), suggesting no altered purity of total RNA. Apart from a slight decrease in the 28s:18s ribosomal RNA ratio in 1.5 h samples (p<0.05), the value was not statistically different between 20 min and 6 h samples ($p{\geq}0.05$), indicating intact total RNA up to 6 h. Abundance of reference genes encoding beta-actin (ACTB), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT), peptidylprolylisomerase A (PPIA) and TATA box-binding protein (TBP) as well as meat-quality associated genes (insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isozyme 4 (PDK4), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARD) were investigated using qPCR. Transcript abundances of ACTB, GAPDH, HPRT, and PPIA were significantly different among all postmortem time points (p<0.05). Transcript levels of PDK4 and PPARD were significantly reduced in the 6 h samples (p<0.05). The findings suggest an adverse effect of a prolonged postmortem duration on reliability of transcript quantification in chicken skeletal muscle. For the best RNA quality, chicken skeletal muscle should be immediately collected after evisceration or within 20 min postmortem, and rapidly preserved by deep freezing.