신라인의 銅錢과 呪術―神은 돈을 받는다―

이재환 경북대학교 인문학술원 2024 동서인문 Vol.0 No.25

신라의 錢貨 사용 문제에 대해서는 지금까지 그다지 관심이 기울여지지 못해 왔다. 신라가 자체적으로 전화를 주조했다는 기록은 없으므로, 만약 신라에 전화가 유통되었다면 이는 중국 왕조에서 발행한 것을 들여와 사용하였다고 보지 않을 수 없다. 한반도 남부에는 일찍이 ‘韓’들이 존재하던 시기부터 바다나 강의 水路에 연한 지역들을 중심으로 ‘중국 동전’이 들어와 있었음이 확인된다. 해안 지역 생활유적에서 출토된 ‘중국 동전’의 경우 일상적 교역에 사용되었을 것으로 보기도 한다. 경제적 함의를 가지고 사용되었다기보다 무덤 부장품으로서 장식품이나 의례용으로 사용된 경우가 더 일반적이며, 당시 韓人들이 내부적으로 ‘중국 동전’을 거래 수단으로 사용했다고 보기는 어렵지만, 중국과의 접촉을 통해 錢貨의 존재와 의미를 인식하게 되었음은 인정된다. 백제 유적에서 발견되는 중국의 錢貨들 또한 대체로 주술적 맥락에서 사용된 것으로 여겨진다. 비록 수량이 많지 않지만, 신라의 왕경 및 지방 유적에서도 ‘중국 동전’이 발견된 사례들이 있다. 따라서 신라에서 ‘중국 동전’이 유통·사용되지 않았다고 할 수는 없다. 단, 이들 역시 葬禮나 地鎭 의식 등에서 주술적인 의미를 가지고 활용된 것이 대부분이다. 특히 실제 동전이 아닌 모조품의 사례는 그 상징적·주술적 성격을 분명히 해주고 있다. 이러한 출토 사례에 더하여, 함안 성산산성 출토 가야1601 목간의 내용을 “好□錢六入”으로 새롭게 판독함으로써 여섯 개의 동전이 들어 있던 용기에 묶였던 付札로 판단하였다. 물품의 교환이나 財富의 비축이라는 용도와 관련시키기에 ‘여섯 개’라는 수량은 적다. 역시 주술적 맥락에서 의식에 사용하기 위하여 입수·보관하고 있었다고 보는 것이 자연스럽다. 동전이 가지는 주술적 의미에 대해서는 여러 해석이 존재하지만, 지불 수단이나 재부의 축적 수단이라는 본래의 의미에서 그 근원을 찾아야 할 것이다. 신라인들은 錢貨의 존재와 개념을 이미 인식하고, 錢貨가 유통되는 지역의 상황을 알고 있었으며, 그들이 신앙하던 신적 존재는 錢貨가 존재하던 세계로부터 혹은 그곳을 거쳐서 신라에 이른 존재들이었다. 결국 神들에게, 그리고 ‘보편 세계’로서의 他界에서는 당연히 돈이 통한다고 생각할 수 있었다. 이러한 측면에서 돈의 수요가 존재하고, 그에 맞추어 유통도 이루어졌던 것으로 보인다. 현실 세계로서의 신라에 대해서는 아직 확실히 알 수 없지만, 神은 돈을 받았던 것이다. The issue of coin usage in the Silla Dynasty has not received much attention until now. There are no records indicating that Silla minted its own coins. Therefore, if coins were circulated in Silla, they were likely Chinese coins. Evidence confirms that Chinese coins came into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula from regions along waterways such as seas and rivers, dating back to the time when the Hans(韓) existed. Some researchers believe that the Chinese coins excavated from living sites in coastal areas were likely used in everyday trade. However, rather than having been used for economic purposes, it is more common that they were used as ornamental items or ritual objects in tombs. Although it is difficult to consider that Han people of that time used Chinese coins as a medium of exchange internally, it is at least acknowledged that they became aware of the existence and significance of coins through contact with China. Chinese coins have also been found at Baekje sites and are generally believed to have been used in a magical context. Although not frequent or numerous, Chinese coins have been found in Silla's capital and provincial sites. Therefore, it cannot be said that Chinese coins were not circulated or used in Silla at all. However, most of them were utilized in rituals such as funerals or earth deity ceremonies, carrying a symbolic or magical significance rather than serving as a form of currency. Notably, cases of imitation coins shows their symbolic and magical nature. In addition to these findings, the writings on wooden document Gaya1601 discovered at the Seongsansanseong Fortress in Haman has been newly interpreted as “好□錢六入,” suggesting it was a label for a container with six coins. The quantity of “six” seems insufficient for trade or wealth accumulation, indicating that these coins were likely obtained and stored for ritualistic purposes. There are various interpretations regarding the ritualistic meaning of coins, but it is important to trace their origins back to their primary significance as payment or wealth accumulation tools. The Silla people were aware of the existence and concept of coins, understood the conditions of coin-using regions, and perceived that their deities came from or passed through worlds where coins were used. Therefore, it was natural to think that coins would be valid in the realm of gods and otherworldly realms. We cannot yet be certain whether coins were used for economic purposes in Silla, but it is clear that the gods did receive money.

중세 일본의 宋錢 유통과 撰錢令

박경수 일본사학회 2011 일본역사연구 Vol.34 No.-

This study is about stepwise changes on coin history in medieval Japan related to coins of Sung China based on the historical situations of China. The systems of power had been changed according to the ban on sorting out coins and the coin policy of the Oda & Toyotomi government since the late 15th century. On the other hand, this thesis analyses coin history over the transition period which the coin system gets diffuse and concludes in three kinds of coins' system with gold, silver and copper coins in Edo Bakuhu. As a result, the system of three kinds of coins in Edo Bakuhu was based on the monetary economy of coins of Sung China in medieval Japan. In addition, it was formed by the official exchange rate surrounding gold, silver, and copper coins which the Oda regime inserted an additional article above the ban on sorting out coins issued from regulations in 1569. Also it contains political social situations that gold and silver coins were used universally under the Toyotomi regime. Moreover there was the general state of expectancy in the society which the coins were issued. At the end of this article, it deals with four main points about coin history in medieval Japan based on a lot of precedent studies. 1. why couldn't coins be issued in medieval Japan? 2. The regional background in medieval Japan which imported mass coins of Sung China. 3. The theory that Asikaga Yeosimichz seized the throne depending on the import of coins of Myeong China. 4. Acceptance of Younglak coin in East Japan and the cause of exclusion of West Japan.

17~18세기 銅錢 발행과 作錢制의 시행

임성수 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2021 한국문화 Vol.- No.93

This study is about the background of coin issuance and the value of currency. In the 17th century, The financial situation of Joseon, which suffered two major wars and several bad harvests, was very difficult. So the Joseon government discussed coin issuance to overcome the financial crisis. However, several coin issuance failed. This is because people did not buy or use coins. The government implemented a policy of collecting administrative fees only in coins to force the use of coins, but did not see much success. People didn't trust coins. For them, coins were just metal that they could neither eat nor wear. After King Hyojong declared the abolition of coins in 1656, there was no discussion of coin issuance for some time. However, from 1670 until the following year, Joseon was hit by a great famine. There were one million people who starved to death, and many livestock died from the plague. Joseon was close to bankruptcy, because it had low revenue and it had to provide a lot of relief fund to people. During the weak economy, Joseon government decided to issue coins in large-scale in 1678. the government’s coin policy failed twice already, Joseon revised the law to pay various poll taxes only in coins. Naturally, many people had to buy coins to pay taxes. Nevertheless, coin sales have been low. This is because the government issued too many coins. So the government forced to have people pay land taxes in coin as well. In Joseon, the system was called 'jakjeon(作錢)'. The land tax was the largest and most important revenue. But not all land taxes were collected in coins. The policy applied only to areas where taxes were collected in cotton, except for areas where rice was collected. This is because the most important commodity in Joseon was rice. When land taxes were paid in coins, farmers were forced to purchase coins. In the process, coins were given a stable value. This is finally a successful attempt and the government was able to sell all the coins that had been in stock and succeed in expanding its finances. .

주화 디자인의 조형적 특징에 관한 연구(한국, 중국, 일본 유통주화를 중심으로)

남세현,김맹호 한국기초조형학회 2018 기초조형학연구 Vol.19 No.3

When traveling in another countries, they experience difficulties in using the coins because theyare similar in shape. The use of the same theme and composition results in a goodrepresentation of national unity, but poor usability. Circulation coins generally have nationalsymbolic themes that represent their identity. But circulation coins are used for economic utility. It is necessary to be able to quickly and accurately convey the information of the denominationCirculation coins differ in their balance of usability and symbolism depending on the nationalenvironment. Therefore, in this study looked at the formative features related to use performancethrough the analysis of actual circulation coin cases. Especially, the purpose of study is to assistin the design planning in terms of the delivery of information to distinguish the currency and giftcertificates comprising multiple documents, including circulation coins. Korea, China and Japan have a certain cultural and historical similarities and differences. Although overlapping themes are used in circulation coins, there are differences in expressiondue to different national sentiments. The following conclusions were drawn by comparing thedesign elements of the three countries' circulation coins. In order to increase the convenience of using circulation coins, First, have to distinguish colorsby using metal materials of circulation coin differently. Second, if the colors are the same, theshape of the polygon or the other materials combination method and the edge should bedifferent for the purpose of the formative differentiation. Third, you should not use similarthemes between adjacent coins. Fourth, it is advantageous to apply the face value information ofa coin to both the front and the back of the coin in order to distinguish the denomination. Fifth,the theme and face value of the coin, the issuer, the year of issue, and the composition and sizeof the coin should be unified in terms of national characteristics and recognition. 다른 나라를 여행할 때 유통주화 형태가 서로 비슷하여 사용의 어려움을 경험하는 일이 있다. 같은 주제와 구도를 사용하고 있기 때문에 국가적인 통일성은 잘 나타나지만 사용성이 떨어지는 경우라 할 수 있다. 유통주화에는 일반적으로 국가의 상징적인 주제가 적용되어 정체성을 상징하게 된다. 그러나 유통주화는 경제적인 활용을목적으로 사용되는 것이다. 권종별 액면 정보를 빠르고 정확하게 전달하여 사용의 편의를 높일 수 있어야 한다. 유통주화는 국가적인 환경에 따라 사용성과 상징성에 대한 균형을 달리하게 된다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 실제유통주화 사례 분석을 통한 사용성과 관계된 조형적 특징에 관하여 알아보았다. 특히 유통주화를 포함하여 다수의 문서로 구성되는 화폐, 상품권 등을 구분하기 위한 정보전달 측면에서 디자인 계획 수립에 도움을 주는 것을목적으로 한다. 우리나라와 중국, 일본은 일정 부분 문화, 역사적인 공통점과 차별성을 갖고 있다. 유통주화에서도 서로 겹치는주제들이 사용되어 있으나 국민적인 정서가 다르기 때문에 표현 방법적인 차이가 나타나 있다. 3개국 유통주화의 디자인 구성요소들을 서로 비교 분석하는 방법으로 다음의 결론을 도출하였다. 유통주화 사용의 편의성을 높이기 위해서는 첫 번째, 유통주화의 디자인 구성요소 중 금속소재를 다르게 적용하여 권종별 색상을 차별화시켜야 한다. 두 번째, 권종별 색상이 동일할 경우 형태적인 차별화를 위해 다각형 또는 이종결합 방식, 톱니의 형태를 다르게 해야 한다. 세 번째, 인접 권종 사이에는 유사한 주제를 사용하지 않는것이 좋다. 네 번째, 주화의 액면 표시는 앞·뒷면 모두 적용하는 것이 권종 구분에 유리하다. 다섯 번째, 주화의주제와 액면, 발행처, 발행연도 등의 위치 및 크기는 국가적 특징 및 인식의 편의 측면에서 전체 권종의 통일감을 유지시키는 것이 좋다.

18세기 전반 廢錢論의 전개와 鑄錢 재개

임성수 한국외국어대학교(글로벌캠퍼스) 역사문화연구소 2022 역사문화연구 Vol.83 No.-

The Choson Dynasty stopped issuing coins for a while after issuing large-scale coins during the great famine from 1695 to 1697. The suspension of coin issuance caused various problems, including a shortage of coins, over time. The biggest problem was the loan shark using coins. Farmers paid taxes by buying coins at high prices. Poor farmers borrowed coins and suffered heavy losses from excessive interest. The solution was largely divided into two. One was to eliminate all coins and not use them, and the other was to reduce the value of coins by supplying them in large quantities on the market. King Yeongjo was consistent in his position to get rid of coins. Coins were goods that should be lost that only caused great damage to the people. However, as the national finances became difficult due to poor harvests and infectious diseases, and the cost of relieving farmers was insufficient, the issuance of coins resumed. He changed his position for the sake of the people. From this period, King Yeongjo used coins for each major national policy and financial crisis. This became an important turning point for the use of coins to spread throughout the country after the late 18th century and to firmly establish itself as Choson's currency. 조선은 숙종 21년(1695)부터 숙종 23년(1697)까지 이른바 ‘을병정대기근’을 거치면서 대규모 주전을 시행한 이후로 한동안 주전을 중지하였다. 동전 발행의 중단은 시간이 지날수록 동전 부족과 다양한 문제를 야기하였다. 가장 큰 문제는 동전을 활용한 債錢이었다. 농민들은 동전을 비싼 값이 구매하여 세금을 납부하였다. 경제력이 취약한 대부분의 농민들은 빚으로 동전을 마련했고, 과도한 이자로 인해 큰 피해를 보았다. 동전으로 인한 문제가 심화되면서 전국에서 상소가 빗발쳤다. 해결책은 크게 두 가지로 나뉘었다. 하나는 동전이 없던 시기로 돌아가는 廢錢이었고, 다른 하나는 동전을 대량으로 시중에 공급하여 동전 가치를 떨어뜨리는 것이었다. 오랜 錢弊에도 불구하고, 정부는 이렇다 할 대책을 내놓지 못하고 있었다. 주전이 중단된 상황에서 매년 이어진 代錢納으로 정부에는 동전은 쌓여갔고, 시중의 동전은 말라갔다. 그 결과 錢荒이 발생하였다. 전황은 기존 錢弊의 양상을 더욱 심각하게 만들었고, 신하들의 鑄錢 요구도 거세졌다. 영조도 동전 문제를 충분히 인식하고 있었지만, 그 대책은 신하들과 달랐다. 廢錢을 통해 문제를 해결하겠다는 것이 즉위 초반부터 이어진 영조의 입장이었다. 영조가 폐전을 하려는 다름 아닌 ‘爲民’에 있었다. ‘富益富貧益貧’을 심화시키고, 풍속을 해치는 ‘無用之物’로 인해 小民만 피해를 보고 있다고 믿었기 때문에 동전은 사라져야할 재화였다. 그러나 대전납을 다시 허용하고, 일부 주전을 재개한 것도 ‘爲民’ 때문이었다. 영조 26년(1750)을 기점으로 영조는 폐전을 포기하고 자신의 역점 사업을 위해 鑄錢을 적극 활용하기 시작하였다. 농민들의 군역 부담을 극적으로 줄여준 均役法 시행이 가장 큰 배경이었다. 주전의 표면적 이유는 흉년과 전염병으로 인한 國用 부족이었지만, 실상은 균역법 이후 발생하는 급대 수요를 보충하고, 結錢 징수와 代錢納 확대에 따른 동전 수요 증가를 대비하기 위함이 더 큰 이유였다. 이 시기부터 영조는 국가의 주요 정책과 재정적 위기마다 동전을 활용하였다. 이는 18세기 후반 이후 동전 사용이 전국에 확산되고, 동전이 조선의 通貨로서 확고하게 자리 잡게 되는 중요한 전환점이 되었다.

고려시대 화폐 주조의 시원에 대한 역사성 탐색

김도연 경기대학교 인문학연구소 2022 시민인문학 Vol.43 No.-

The first currency in Korea, the iron coin(철전), was first created in April of the 15th year of King Seongjong (996). Seongjong started preparations for the distribution of iron coin by opening a state-run pub in October 983. And in 991, Samsa(삼사), the price control department, which was affected by Sung Empire(宋) was installed. And in 993, Sangpyeongchang(상평창) was also installed, which was associated with the purpose of price control, currency distribution. In other words, Seongjong prepared the distribution of iron coin from the following year of the accession, opened a store so that it could be used in the market, installed Samsa and Sangpyeongchang where money could be exchanged. Meanwhile, the copper coin was first cast in December of King Sukjong's second year(1097), when the coins circulated were also the first. Since then, there has been opposition from the newcomers such as Kwak Sang, but Sukjong has steadily promoted the distribution of coins. In the same as King Seonjong, Sukjong also set up a pub in Kaesong and took measures to make the people use money. In addition, he distributed money to his servants and soldiers, and he also told it to his ancestry. However, the attempts and efforts of Seongjong and Sukjong did not shine. Mokjong, the successor of the Seongjong distributed a letter that completely retreated the distribution of iron coin, Yejong, who succeeded Sukjong, showed his willingness to push forward the copper coin distribution, but distribution in the market was not active. So why did iron and copper coins not actively distribute? In the Goryeo period, the value of iron was not enough to have credit as money. And so did copper. And in Sung, coins were actively circulated and the value of copper rose. For this reason, there was a situation in which the value of copper was higher than the value of the coin, and the coin was melted. In this situation, Goryeo is believed to have seen financial profits by agreeing to export to Sung. Many countries in China, where metal currencies were actively distributed, also distributed goods currency(물품화폐) with metal currencies. This means that the distribution of metal currencies is not based on the disposal of goods currencies. In other words, metal and goods currencies could coexist. Although the Goryeo period did not actively distribute iron and copper coins, it is significant that these metal coins were first minted and distributed. Iron and copper coin in the Goryeo period is meaningful enough as a beginning.

송전 유출에 대한 고찰 – 송전의 유출 경로를 중심으로 –

鄭壹敎 전북사학회 2017 전북사학 Vol.0 No.51

중국의 송조는 동전 본위제의 화폐 체제를 확립하고 발전시킨 왕조로 이전 왕조와 비교하여 금속화폐 뿐만 아니라 지폐도 발행‧유통시켰다. 송은 금속화폐, 특히 동전의 주조량은 이전왕조와 비교할 수 없을 정도로 많은 양을 주조‧유통시켰다. 宋朝는 중국역대 왕조 중에서 金屬貨幣 발행량이 가장 많았고, 중국 역사상 최초로 紙幣를 사용한 왕조이다. 이 사실 하나만으로도 宋代 화폐가 중국사에서 차지하는 비중은 매우 크다고 할 수 있다. 화폐의 발행량이 증가하고 액면가가 높은 紙幣를 사용한다는 것은 그만큼 상품경제가 발달하고 경제의 규모도 화폐가 필요할 만큼 성장했다는 것을 의미한다. 이와 더불어 동전뿐만 아니라 금‧은‧철전 등과 같은 여러 종류의 금속화폐를 유통시켰다. 송전의 외류 즉, 송전의 해외 유출은 육로와 해로를 이루어 졌다. 육로를 통해서는 遼‧金, 해로를 통해서는 高麗‧日本‧동남아 등의 지역으로 송전이 유출된 것이다. 해로를 통한 송전의 유출은 항구를 중심으로 이루어졌다. 남송시기 市舶 무역을 통해 동전이 유출되는 것을 금지하는 정책을 취하지는 않았다. 그렇지만 그 후 동전이 海路를 통해 유출되는 것을 막고자 여러 가지 법령을 제정하여 반포하였다. 송전의 유출은 해외에서의 수요가 있었기에 가능한 일이었다. 북송 초기부터 송 조정은 동전의 유출을 법으로 엄히 금하고 있었다. 그렇지만 법을 어기면서까지 송전이 해외로 유출되었다는 것은 그 만큼 주변국가에서 송전의 수요가 있었다는 증거일 것이다. 각국의 송전 수요는 국가별로 특수한 내부 사정이 존재를 하였고, 주변국가의 화폐 정책에도 많은 영향을 끼쳤다. 송전의 해외 유출은 北宋‧南宋, 陸路‧海路, 商人‧官吏 등 다양한 시기, 다양한 방법, 다양한 사람들 사이에서 발생하였다. 이는 송전이 광범위하게 유출되었다는 것을 단적으로 보여주는 증거일 것이다. 이미 언급했듯이 송전의 유출은 단순히 송전이 해외의 諸國으로 빠져나가는 단편적인 문제가 아니다. 송 내부의 문제와 외부의 수요가 있었기에 가능한 일이었다. 송 조정은 송전의 유출이 경제에 끼치는 영향을 일찍이 파악하고 송전의 유출을 막기 위하여 다양한 정책을 실시하였고, 형법으로 엄히 다스렸다. 그렇지만 송전은 송 내부에서 사용될 때보다도 해외에서 사용될 때 그 가치가 더 높게 평가되었다. 이로 인해 송전을 유출하다 발각될 경우 엄한 처벌을 감수하고라도 송전을 몰래 유출하는 경우가 종종 발생하였다. 10~13세기 송전의 주변국가 유출은 당시 송의 경제가 동아시아 지역 경제에 큰 영향을 끼치고 있었음을 증명해준다. 또한 송전이 유입된 高麗‧遼‧金‧日本 등 주변 국가의 화폐 정책과 화폐 주조에도 큰 영향을 끼쳤다는 사실 또한 알 수 있다. The Song dynasty had established and developed the cupper currency standard. And the Song dynasty issued the paper money and circulated the money. The Song dynasty issued the largest amount of metal money in China and used world’s first paper money. It can be said that the Song’s currency accounts a large part of Chinese history. The increase of currency issuance and the using of the large denomination bill means the development of the commodity market and the growth of the economic scale in the Song dynasty. Also the Song dynasty used not only cupper currency but also gold, silver and iron coin. The Song’s coin was flowed out abroad. The outflow of the Song’s coin was done by land and sea. By overland route, it was flowed out to the Liao and Jin dynasty. And by sea route, it was flowed out to Goryeo, Japan and Southeast Asia area. The outflow by sea route was centered around harbors. The southern Song dynasty did not enforce the monetary policy to prevent the outflow of coin by special maritime trade supervisorates(shibosi, trading-ship-offices). Then the southern Song dynasty enacted and enforced the several policies to prevent the coin’s outflow. The outflow of the Song’s coin was possible because there were the demands overseas. Since the northern Song dynasty, it was illegal to flow out the coin abroad. The illegal outflow of the Song’s coin is proof of the demands from neighboring countries. The neighboring countries had its own internal affairs, because the abroad demands of the Song’s coin was deeply influenced the monetary policies in the neighboring countries. Throughout the period of the Song dynasty, the outflow of the Song’s coin was done through the multi channel as officers and merchants by land and sea. This shows that the Song’s coin had been extensively flowed out abroad. As previously mentioned, the outflow of the Song’s coin was possible because there was the Song dynasty’s internal affairs and the demands of the neighboring countries. The Song dynasty grasped the influence of the Song’s coin’s outflow quite early on, enforced several monetary policies and punished the crimes severely. But the Song’s coin was valued higher in the outside than in the inside. This allowed people to flow out the Song’s coin in spite of heavy punishment. From 10th century to 13th century, the Song’s coin outflow shows that the Song dynasty’s economy largely influenced the East Asia’s economy. And the neighboring countries such as Liao, Jin, Goryeo and Japan that flowed in the Song’s coin was largely influenced their own coinage and monetary policies.

北宋時期 河東地域 錢法과 鐵錢

정일교(Jeong, Ilgyo) 순천향대학교 인문학연구소 2020 순천향 인문과학논총 Vol.39 No.4

북송 시기 동전을 중심 한 화폐 체제가 확립되었던 반면 사천, 섬서, 하동 지역은 동전과 철전을 병행하기도 하였고 철전만을 사용하기도 하였다. 四川・陝西・河東지역은 북송 시기에 특수 화폐 지역으로 볼 수 있을 것이다. 사천지역이 철전 전용지역으로 결정되는 데 있어서 정치적인 요소와 경제적인 요소가 큰 작용을 하였다. 섬서 지역은 1041년(경력 원)에 철전 사용지역으로 확정이 되었다. 섬서 지역의 철전사용은 西夏와의 전쟁의 영향을 받았던 것으로 보인다. 하동 지역은 섬서 지역과 같은 경우로 요와 서하의 전쟁의 영향으로 철전을 사용하게 되었고 다른 지역과는 다르게 처음부터 대전을 주로 사용하였다. 하동 지역은 사천과 섬서 지역과는 다르게 遼・西夏와 국경을 맞대고 있었다. 송대 철전 사용지역은 주로 北狄과 국경을 맞대고 있던 지역으로 이는 조정에서 동전이 북방지역으로의 유출을 막고자 하였던 이유도 있었다. 이를 위해 북방의 적들과 국경을 맞대고 있던 지역은 주로 철전을 사용하였다. 하동 지역에서의 철전 사용은 사천과 섬서 지역에 비해 다소 늦은 시기에 시작되었다. 하동 지역에서의 철전 사용을 보면 慶曆年間(1041~1048)부터 시작하였고, 철전 사용 초기에는 섬서 지역의 군비를 충당하기 위한 목적이었다. 또한, 사천과 섬서지역과는 다르게 小平錢이 아닌 대전을 주조하였다. 이미 사천 지역에서는 진종 시기부터 대철전을 주조하여 유통하고 있었기 때문에 하동 지역에서도 대철전을 주조하였다. 하동 지역에서 처음부터 대철전을 주조하게 되면서 대철전 사용 이전에 사용되었던 화폐와의 가치 평가에서 상당한 문제점이 발생하였고 이 과정에서 백성들이 조정에 항의하는 경우도 종종 발생하였다. 하동 지역에서 대철전을 사용하게 되면서 여러 문제들이 발생하였지만 결국 금의 북송 침입으로 하동 지역이 금의 영토에 포함되면서 이러한 문제를 해결하지 못하는 결말을 맞게 되었다. In the Northern Song Dynasty, most of China had the copper coin standard monetary system. But some regions of China like Shisen[四川], Shaanxi[陝西], and Hedong[河東] used both cooper coin and iron coin, or only used iron coin. Those regions were some special districts for currency. There were some important political and economic factors that Shisen became a exclusive using iron coin area. Shaanxi became the area using iron coin in 1041[Qingli(慶曆) 1]. It was the result that affected by the war between the Song Dynasty and Western Xia[西夏]. Hedong was also similar situation. Hedong was affected by the war between Western Xia and the Liao Dynasty[大遼], and became the area to using iron coin. Unlike other regions, Hedong used great iron coin since the first time. The region of Hedong had bordered on Western Xia and the Liao Dynasty, unlike Shisen and Shaanxi. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the areas using iron coin were usually the regions bordered on northern barbarian. Because the government of the Song Dynasty tried to prevent the leaks of copper coin into northen-east area of China. So, the regions that boarded on barbarian had used iron coin usually. The start using iron coin in Hedong was later than the regions of Shisen and Shaanxi. The using iron coin of Hedong was started in the era of Qingli[慶曆年間(1041~1048)]. When the using iron coin first started, it aimed to afford the military spending of Shaanxi. Also, Unlike Shisen and Shaanxi, since the first time, Hedong used great iron coin, not small coin. Because Shisen had minted great iron coin and used it since the reign of Emperor Zhenzong[眞宗]. So Hedong also became to mint great iron coin and used it. But the using great iron coin caused some severe problems of the valuation between old coin and new coin. And in this process, the people sometimes used to protest the government. There were lots of problems that happened to using great iron coin. But because of the invasion of the Jin dynasty [大金], Hedong became the territory of the Jin dynasty. Eventually, those problems were remained unresolved.

西夏 貨幣와 宋錢의 西夏 유입

정일교 동양사학회 2022 東洋史學硏究 Vol.160 No.-

The coin and the system of currency in the Western Xia followed the Northern Song dynasty’s currency system and the shape of the coin. In the Western Xia, people used coins that had round outer shape and a square center hole(方孔圓形) and inscribed with the era names(年號錢). Since the region of the Western Xia was the place that shorted in copper and iron at that time, they employed mainly the coins of the Northern Song dynasty or the Jin dynasty. In 1044(Qingli(慶曆) 4), the Northern Song dynasty and the Western Xia signed a peace treaty. Yuanhao(元昊) canceled to term himself as Emperor, and the Northern Song dynasty recognized him as the ruler of Xia lands(夏國主). Also the Northern Song dynasty agreed to pay lots of coins as the annual tribute. There were also a outflow of the coins of the Northern Song dynasty to the Western Xia by trade on the border. In this process, the Western Xia owned a massive coins of the Song dynasty and used them in a variety of ways. Furthermore, the Western Xia minted their own coins. Western Xia first established the Supervisory house of Currency(通濟監) which were responsible for cast coin in 1158(Tiansheng(天盛) 10), and issued coin that called ‘Tian Sheng Yuan Bao(天盛元寶).’ The coin produced in Western Xia were cast in Chinese characters. In the Northern Song dynasty, there were a close connection among the lack of coinage, the development of commodity economy, and the circulation of money. The lack of coinage was caused by a combination of those main factors. The outflow of Song dynasty’s coins was one of the main occasions of the lack of coinage. In the early period of the Northern Song dynasty, the government imposed a strong ban on the outflow of coinage to foreign countries. There are a little bit records about the outflow of the Northern Song’s coin. But the writer was able to figure out the situation of the outflow of the Northern Song’s coinage by checking the policy to ban the outflow of coinage and the trade policies in the Northern Song dynasty. It shows the inflow of the Northern Song’s coinage in large quantity to the Western Xia by the trade between the Western Xia and the Northern Song dynasty. This outflow of the Northern Song’s coinage was one of the reasons to accelerate the lack of coinage in the Northern Song dynasty. The Western Xia was a sovereign nation, but small in quantity of the coinage. In the Western Xia, there were more iron coins than copper coins. It was because the Western Xia had to supply the demands due to the socio-economic development. By the public and private trade, border trade, smuggling, and etc, the lots of coinage of the Northern Song dynasty flowed to the Western Xia. The coins aside from the necessary demand for circulation was used as material to make weapons or object. Thus, in the Western Xia, people treasured the Northern Song’s coinage. The Western Xia established the district of iron coin to prevent the outflow of cooper coins, and strictly managed the circulation of coinage through the announcement of the law. In this paper, the writer intend to review the relationship of the coinage exchange between the Northern Song dynasty and the Western Xia through the analysis about the Western Xia’s monetary system and the inflow route to the Western Xia of the Northern Song’s coin.

콘스탄티누스 대제의 기독교 주화와 정치 종교적 함의

김동주 한신대학교 한신신학연구소 2020 신학연구 Vol.57 No.1

Constantine the Great was the first ruler to mint Christian coins. His Christian coins typically bear images of the cross, Christ’s name (key-ro) and images of the “Hand of God,” which are generally the most numerous coins in largest volume. Cross coins were issued by Constantine the Great from 319, but the total quantity was not large. It still suggests that the cross was not yet a central symbol of Christianity until the time of the Great Era. Instead, various Christian symbols were used in coins. The name of Christ was also used frequently on the coins. The Christian coinage of the Great Empire contributed greatly to the spread of Christianity, which clearly served as a decisive factor in the social and economic internalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Among the coin-making directors of Christian cities such as Ephesus and Constantinople, obviously there were a large number of Christians, so they were able to publish Christian coins in cooperation with the high priest. Crosses on coins issued in these cities can be seen as clearly meaning Christianity. Nevertheless, Constantine generally took a gradual attitude and a hybridist approach in issuing Christian coins. In terms of the rate of coin issuance, many coins sought to follow the traditional form. In the early days of the reign, the issuance of castings, including pagan images and phrases, was also permitted, and the quantity was gradually reduced. The characteristics of Constantine’s Christian coinage are a mixture of pagan gods and crosses, and a mixture of pagan phrases and Christ names. This reveals the religious syncretism of the great emperor. In the 30-year reign of Constantine, the total number of coins issued is about 500. A total of 11 kinds of all coins included the cross, and 10 coins were named Key-roh. The type of cross coins was comparatively small, but the amount of issue was considerable. In other words, rather than various symbols, they repeatedly published coins of focus on crosses and slogans. In the Constantine coinage, Christian patterns, such as crosses, Christian names, and religious phrases, were used in the margins, as well as in equipment such as pitches, shields, and military flags. This style of coinage is also consistent with the records of Eusebios’ writing. If many of the 4th century Christian coins included Christian symbols, the 5th century coins that followed became many independently engraved Christian symbols, apart from the items such as flags or weapons. If the Christian symbol in the fourth-century Constantine coinage gave the impression of religious decoration, it can be said that the sixth-century Christian coins showed not only decoration, but also Christianity itself as the center of empire and politics.