평양 첨성대의 서사구조와 연개소문의 탄생

정연식(Chung Yeon-sik) 한국역사연구회 2011 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.79

The "Annals of the Joseon Dynasty" says that there were nine ponds(九池), nine shrines(九廟) and a Cheomseong-dae tower in Pyeong'yang, and also that nine 'luminaries(九曜)' flew into the aforementioned nine shrines. In ancient myths, water sources such as wells, ponds, fountains or swamps, combined with the essence of the stars or the sun, usually gave birth to greatly heroic figures. Such narrative structure can also be identified from the myths that chronicled the birth of progenitors -the founders- of several ancient political entities like Buyeo, Goguryeo, Silla and Gaya. The wells, ponds, fountains or swamps represented themselves in the form of females. They laid eggs after having a relationship with the sun or the stars, which displayed themselves as a male figure, and then, a great person was either hatched or born. The Na'jeong well, as well as the Cheomseong-dae tower, both in Gyeongju, feature stories that share the same narrative structure. Cheomseong-dae in the Pyeong'yang area seems to have been built in the 7th century, and the owner, or the 'protagonist manager' of the facility so to speak, seems to have been no other than Yeon'gae'so'mun, who was the de-facto ruler of Goguryeo at the time. It must have been built as a symbol -his dignified birth from a water source- that would show off the divinity of his power. In the year 2009, the remains of a heptagonal building were excavated near the site of the An'ag Palace. North Korean archaeologists are claiming it as another Cheomseong-dae tower of Goguryeo, but without further evidence, we cannot be sure.

문무왕릉비의 화관(火官)

정연식(Chung, Yeon-sik) 한국역사민속학회 2014 역사민속학 Vol.0 No.44

문무왕릉비에는 신라인이 화관의 후손으로 묘사되어 있고, 김유신비에서는 금관국 출신의 김유신이 황제 헌원의 후예이며 소호 금천씨의 후손으로 신라 왕실과 같은 조상의 후손이라고 했다 한다. 두 비의 내용은 서로 연관되어 있다. 그 목적은 김유신가와 무열왕가를 하나로 통합하기 위한 것이었다. 화관은 화정 또는 축융이라고도 하는데 상고시대에 하늘의 대화성(大火星)에 제사를 지내고 불을 담당하는 관리였다. 그런데 그 화관의 임무를 전욱 고양씨의 후손이 담당했다. 그리고 화관 축융의 후손은 은과 춘추시대에 중국 형초(荊楚) 지역에 나국(羅國)을 건설했던 존재이다. 그런데 신라(新羅)는 글자대로 해석하면 ‘새로운 나국’이 되고, 따라서 신라는 화관의 후예가 세운 나라가 된다. 한편 가야의 금관국은 금관의 나라이다. 가락국은 철로 이름을 널리 알리게 되자 쇠를 다루었던 금관(金官)의 후예를 자처했던 듯하다. 금관 욕수(?收)의 임무는 소호 금천씨의 아들 해(該)가 담당했다. 결국 소호 금천씨 설화는 신라가 아니라 금관국의 것이었다. 신라의 화관은 전욱 고양씨의 후손이고, 가야의 금관은 소호 금천씨의 후손인데 전욱과 소호의 공동 조상이 바로 황제 헌원이다. 화관계 신라의 무열왕과 금관계 가야의 김유신은 황제를 연결고리로 해서 한 핏줄로 묶이게 되었다. 김유신비에서 ‘금(金)’과 아무런 연관이 없는, 사족과 같은 황제 헌원을 언급한 것은 이 때문이다. 그러나 이 내용은 대부분 사실과 거리가 먼 수사적 허구이다. 그러므로 두 가문이 하나로 합쳐져 고착되고 수사적 허구의 목적이 상실된 후로는 시간의 흐름과 함께 잊어져 갔다. The people of Silla was described as the descendants of Hwagwan(official of fire) on the tombstone of King Munmu(文武王), and Gim Yusin(金庾信) was described as the descendants of Shaohao Jintian(少昊 金天) and Huangdi Xuanyuan(黃帝 軒轅) on his tombstone. It says that the royal households of Silla and Gaya had common ancestor. Hwagwan was the official who took charge of fire management and the ritual for Antares(α Sco) in ancient China. Hed founded State Ra(羅國). The name of Silla(新羅) means new State Ra, so he could become the ancestor of the people of Silla. He was the son of Zuanxu Gaoyang(?頊 高陽). State Gaya(加耶), the fatherland of Gim Yusin had been called Geumgwan-gug(金官國) which means the state of official of metal. Geumgwan was the son of Shaohao Jintian. Silla was the state of Hwagwan and the Gaya was the state of Geumgwan. Hwagwan, the founder of the royal household of Silla was the son of Zuanxu and Geumgwan, the founder of the royal household of Gaya was the son of Shaohao. Zuanxu and Shaohao was the descendants of Hwangdi, so Hwangdi was the common ancestor of Silla and Gaya. Finally Hwangdi became the same ancestor of Gim Yusin and King Muyeol(武烈王) who was the father of King Munmu. The tombstone of King Munmu and Gim Yusin manifests the union of the blood of Gim Yusin and King Muyeol. But it was not the fact but the rhetorical fiction.

거타지 설화의 새로운 해석

정연식 ( Yeon Sik Chung ) 연세대학교 국학연구원 2012 동방학지 Vol.160 No.-

우리나라 고대에 별자리는 중요한 의미를 지녔다. 특히 왕의 신성성은 별자리 이야기로 장식되어, 고려 왕실의 탄생을 그린 작제건 설화도 별자리 이야기로 구성되었다. 그런데 그것은 『삼국유사』의 거타지 설화를 토대로 한 것으로 보인다. 거타지 설화는 두 부분으로 구성되어 있다. 하나는 사신 양패의 이야기이고 또 하나는 궁사 거타지의 이야기이다. 양패 이야기에 등장하는 양패, 궁사 50인, 후백제군, 곡도(鵠島), 신지(神池)는 천절(天節), 삼기(參旗), 필(畢), 오거(五車), 함지(咸池) 별자리를 상징하며, 거타지 이야기에 등장하는 거타지, 노인, 늙은 여우, 노인의 딸은 호(弧), 노인성(老人星), 낭성(狼星), 시(矢) 별자리를 상징한다. 거타지설화는 별자리 이야기를 빌어 신라 말의 어지러운 상황을 타개한 한 영웅의 이야기를 담고 있다. 그 영웅은 거타지였으며 그는 후에 작제건 설화에서 왕건의 조부 작제건으로 바뀌었다. Constellations had significant meaning in ancient Korea. Especially kings` divinity had been adorned by the constellation stories. The tale of Jakjegeon(作帝建) which describes the birth of the royal family of the Goryeo dynasty is composed of constellation stories too, and it is believed to be derived from the tale of Geotaji in Samguk-yusa(『三國遺事』). The tale of Geotaji is composed of two parts. One is the s tory of envoy Yangpae(良貝) and the other is that of archer Geotaji Envoy Yangpae, 50 archers, the troops of Later Baekje, Gokdo(鵠島) island and sacred pond in the story of Yangpae mean the Oriental constellations of Cheonjeol(天節), Samgi(參旗), Pil(畢), Ogeo(五車) and Hamji(咸池). archer Geotaji, old man, old fox and old man`s daughter in the story of Geotaji mean the constellations of Ho(弧), Canopus, Sirius and Phaet. The tale describes a hero named Geotaji who tided over the troubled situation and saved people in the end of the Silla dynasty Later he was transformed into Jakjegeon who was the grandfather of Wang Geon(王建) in the tale of Jakjegeon.

작제건 설화의 새로운 해석

정연식(Chung Yeon-sik) 한국사연구회 2012 한국사연구 Vol.158 No.-

Constellations had significant meaning in ancient Korea. Especially kings’ divinity had been adorned by the story of constellations. The tale of Jakjegeon in the Genealogy of the Goryeo Dynasty is one of the story of kings’ constellations. The old fox shot by Jakjegeon took the shape of Tejaprabha Buddha(熾盛光如來), incarnation of the Polestar in Buddhism. In that tale Jakjegeon can be interpreted as Cheonjanggun constellation(天將軍: general in the sky), pig as Gyu constellation(奎), willow stick as Gakdo constellation(閣道: passage to palace), black ship as Oebyeong constellation(外屛: outer folding screen), cave of Changreung as the dark area near Daerung constellation(大陵: great royal tomb) across the gallaxy, seven jewels as Myo constellation(?), the old woman as Gweonseol constellation(卷舌: rolled tongue). The tale originated from the heroic tale of Geotaji(居陀知) in the Unified Silla dynasty. The tale of Geotaji was transformed into the tale of divine birth of the royal family of the Goryeo dynasty. Maybe it was made at the beginning of the Goryeo dynasty.

경주 북부의 음즙벌(音汁伐)과 사박리(士朴里)에 남은 알타이어의 흔적

정연식 ( Chung Yeon-sik ) 성균관대학교 대동문화연구원 2018 大東文化硏究 Vol.104 No.-

신라 초기에 존재했던 音汁伐國은 지금의 경주시 안강읍 檢丹里에 있었던 小國이다. ‘音汁’을 音汁伐國이 존재했던 시기의 후기상고음으로 再構하면 ^*ʔrimʨip에 가까운 음이 된다. 그런데 影母 ^*ʔ-는 한반도의 고대 지명표기에서 종종 見母 ^*k-와 동일하게 실현되었으며, 개음 r은 한반도에서 음운도치를 이용한 유음 운미의 표현에 사용되었으므로 ^*ʔri-는 ^*kir-에 상응한다. 그러므로 音汁[^*ʔrimʨip]은 ^*kirmʨip의 표현에 사용될 수 있다. 그런데 터키어에서 ‘붉다’를 kırmızı[kirmizi]라 하며, 흑해 주위의 몇몇 알타이어에서도 그와 유사한 음으로 표현한다. 그리고 검단리의 지명 ‘檢丹, 金谷, 거름[巨音], 갈뫼’나 울산 검단리의 ‘괴남지’도 모두 音汁과 음운으로 연결된다. 한편 안강읍에는 紫玉山 남쪽에 士朴里가 있다. 고구려의 ‘沙伏, 沙非’와 백제의 ‘所比’는 모두 ‘赤’에 상응하는 말이다. 원시알타이어의 ^*ĺip‘ú, 몽골어의 ^*ǯibi는 어두운 붉은색, 자주색에 해당되는 말이다. 중국어 邪母 z-가 ʒ-와 가깝고, *lj-에서 유래했으며, ^*z, ^*ʒ가 고대국어에서는 ^*s로 실현되었을 가능성이 높으므로, ^*ǯibi는 ^*sVpi(沙非·所比)와 상통한다. 고대국어의 ^*sVpi는 단순한 붉은 색이 아니라 어두운 紫朱色을 가리키는 말이었을 것이며 따라서 士朴里는 紫玉山과 연관된 지명으로 추정된다. 안강의 音汁伐과 士朴里는 한국어와 알타이어의 연관성을 드러내는 지명으로 생각된다. Eumjeupbeol-guk(音汁伐國) was a small state located at the Geomdan-ri(檢丹里), Angang-eup(安康邑) in Gyeongju(慶州) in the early Silla(新羅). The sound value of '音汁' reconstructed in Late Old Chinese is same as or close to [^*ʔrimʨip]. Sometimes initial ^*ʔ was used to express ^*k- and the medial -r- was used to express the liquids ending -r by metathesis in translation of Old Korean. So the Chinese character 音汁[^*ʔrimʨip] could be used for expressing [^*kirmʨip] in ancient Korea. The word meaning 'red' in Turkish is kırmızı[kirmizi], and those of some Altaic languages around the Black Sea resemble each other. They are similar to [^*kirmʨip]. The place names of '檢丹, 金谷, 거름, 갈뫼' in Angang(安康) originated from [kirm], for the sound values of 檢[^*kramʔ], 金[^*krЩm], 거름[kərim], 갈뫼[kalmø] are similar to [kirm]. In conclusion, we could argue that the place name '音汁伐[^*kirmʨipəl]' meant 'red field'. Sabak-ri(士朴里) near Eumjeupbeol located to the south of Violet Jade Mountain(紫玉山) in Angang also have relation with the Sabok-hol(沙伏忽) and Sabi-geul(沙非近乙) in Goguryeo(高句麗) and Sobi-po(所比浦) in Baekje(百濟). The Words of 'Sabok, Sabi and Sobi' meaning 'red' in Old Korean are similar to ^*ǯibi of Mongol which originated from Proto-Altaic ^*ĺip‘ú meaning 'dark red, violet and purple'. Old Chinese initial ^*lj- changed to Middle Chinese initial z-, and [z] is close to [ʒ], and [z], [ʒ] were pronounced as [s] in Old Korean. So ^*ĺip‘ú of Proto-Altaic and ^*ǯibi of Mongol correspond to sabak(士朴), sabok(沙伏), sabi(沙非) and sobi(所比) of Old Korean. They meant dark red, purple or violet. The place name of Eumjeup-beol(音汁伐) and Sabak-ri(士朴里) are closely related to the word meaning red and dark red in Turkish and Mongol belonging to Altaic family. It is very suggestive concerning the origin of Korean.

조선시대의 끼니

鄭演植(Chung Yeon-Sik) 한국사연구회 2001 한국사연구 Vol.112 No.-

고려의 경주 6부 마을들의 위치와 신라의 6부

鄭演植 ( Chung Yeon-sik ) 성균관대학교 대동문화연구원 2021 大東文化硏究 Vol.113 No.-

오래 전부터 신라 6부와 6촌의 위치를 찾기 위해 다양한 방법이 동원되었다. 그중에는 고려의 경주 6부와 그에 소속된 15촌을 통해 간접적으로 찾으려는 시도도 있었다. 고려 6부에는 위치가 확실한 촌이 대개 하나 이상 있어서 部의 위치도 대강 파악할 수 있었기 때문이다. 그러나 중흥부는 위치를 알 수 있는 촌이 하나도 없어 막연히 경주 중심부로 추정해 왔지만, 석연치 않은 점들이 있었다. 그래서 예전의 지형도와 지명 조사를 참고하고, 지명 표기에 사용된 한자의 음운을 분석하여 15촌 가운데 13촌의 위치를 찾아보았다. 그랬더니 모량부의 후신인 장복부 외에는 고려의 부는 그 전신인 신라의 부와 위치가 일치하지 않았다. 특히 梁部의 후신이라는 중흥부의 촌들은 경주 중심부가 아니라 동해안 쪽의 감포읍과 양북면에 있었다. 따라서 고려 경주 6부의 위치로 신라 초기 6부를 찾아낼 수는 없다. Many researchers have tried to find the locations of the six villages (六村) and the six districts(六部) of Silla in various ways for a long time. Some tried to find them by way of searching 15 villages at the six districts in Gyeongju of Goryeo. Most districts of Goryeo having one or more villages of which location was certain could be found easily. But Jungheung-bu(中興部) was not, so researchers thought it might lie to the center of Gyeongju, for it was the predecessor of Ryang-bu(梁部) which was the strongest political group of Silla. Its location was still in doubt though. Referring to old maps and surveys of old place names and analyzing the phoneme of the Chinese characters used for the name of 15 villages, I searched 13 villages. Finally, I found that the locations of districts of Goryeo and Silla did not coincide except Jangbok-bu(長福部) of Goryeo and Moryang-bu(牟梁部) of Silla. Especially, the villages of Jungheung-bu did not lie to the center of Gyeongju but to the east side of it. I suggest we should give up finding the locations of the six villages and six districts of Silla by searching the six districts in Gyeongju of Goryeo.

첨성대의 기능과 형태에 관한 여러 학설 비판

鄭演植(Chung Yeon-sik) 역사학회 2009 역사학보 Vol.0 No.204

So many theories have been presented on the function and the shape of Ch?ms?ngdae. Among them, observatory theory, gnomon theory, Choubisuanching theory, Sumeru theory and well theory is remarkable. But these theories except well theory have some problems. Observatory theorists claimed that Ch?ms?ngdae was an observatory. But the space for observation is too high and too narrow for observational work. The floor is not even and four sides of the upper rectangular space doesn't indicate compass direction exactly, so it is difficult to fix the coordinates on the celestial sphere. Gnomon theorists claimed Ch?ms?ngdae was a gnomon whose shadow indicated 24 seasonal divisions and hours. But the rectangular space on the top of it which cast shadow does not indicate compass direction exactly so it is difficult to find 24 seasonal divisions. Besides the upper rectangular stone is not appropriate for pointing hour line. The window on the middle of Ch?ms?ngdae is not appropriate for observing 24 seasonal divisions because it doesn't faces the south exactly. Choubisuanching theorists asserted that Ch?ms?ngdae was an annex of astronomical observatory. Ch?ms?ngdae was a monumental symbol of Silla science. The structure of Ch?ms?ngdae expresses the arithmetical ratio such as circular constants and Pythagorean theorem. But the ratio is ambiguous and too subjective. and they claimed that 366 stones connoted 366 days in a year, and 28 layers connoted 28 constellations. But the numbers were made up by artificial manipulation. Sumeru theorist claimed that Ch?ms?ngdae was an altar modeling itself on Sumeru. It was the only theory which try to explain bottle-shaped structure. But compared with rectangular body and sandglass shape of Sumeru, Ch?ms?ngdae has rounded body and take the shape of trapezoid. No theory but well theory could grasp the substance of Ch?ms?ngdae.

신라 금성(金城)의 위치 고증

정연식(Chung, Yeon-Sik) 한국사연구회 2016 한국사연구 Vol.- No.173

신라인들이 ‘喙(훼)’로 표현하고자 한 소릿값과 그 뜻

정연식(Chung, Yeon-sik) 한국역사연구회 2015 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.95

The letter 喙(hue), which can be found from a lot of epigraphs of the Shilla period, seems to be indicating the name of villages or regional districts that existed in Shilla. Presumed pronunciation of the letter varies from [tok] and [tak] to [tol] and [tal]. The exact meaning of the letter is yet to be determined. Finding out the exact pronunciation and meaning of the letter is an extremely difficult task, as the original fanqie spellings(反切) of letters are not listed in Gwang’un(廣韻), but fortunately fanqie spelling information regarding the letter in question was included in Shiji-zhengyi(史記正義), from the letter zheng(丁) to the letter jiu(救). The Old Chinese pronunciation of the letter “喙” (丁救反) can be reconstructed by the system developed by Li Fang-kuei as [*trj?gw], but revision is required. The medial of division Ⅲ [*-j-] did not appear in early Middle Chinese, so the medial [*-j-] could not have been inserted in Old Chinese. In terms of Old Chinese, pronunciation of the letter ‘喙’ can be reconstructed as [*tr?gw]. It should have heard like [*t?rgw] by a r-metathesis, so the people of Shilla must have used this Chinese character to describe the sound of “돍[*turk].” In Old Korean, ‘돍[*turk]’ meant brook and stone, and ‘[*t?rk]’ meant cock, while suffixes were applied to the letter, as ‘-s’ in English. In short, the letter seemed to have meant ‘brook,’ as well as the ‘residence basin’ of a brook.