수대 돈황 막고굴과 장안·낙양 : 통일 그리고 Silk Road Dream

양은경 ( Yang Eun Gyeng ) 중앙아시아학회 2020 中央아시아硏究 Vol.25 No.2

This study explores East-West cultural interactions during the Sui dynasty by examining the structures and murals of the Dunhuang Mogao Caves, also known as the Thousand Buddha Grottos, which so far have received less attention than their importance merits. It focuses on the relationship between Dunhuang and the Changan and Luoyang regions, rather than on the interactive relationship between Dunhuang and the countries to the west of China hitherto emphasized by academic circles. Furthermore, it examines the important role that Dunhuang played during the Sui dynasty and the impact of the revival and subsequent frustration of Sui Emperor Yang's pipedream Silk Road initiative on the Dunhuang Mogao Caves. First of all, in terms of the grottos' structure, the central-pillar grottos, which were prevalent in the Northern and Southern dynasties, continued into the Sui dynasty, but there was a change in both the shape and height of the central pillar and in the Buddha statue enshrined in the central pillar. The overall structure has been confirmed as forming a set relationship with the three-wall structure, each wall having a niche. Investigation of the Mogao Caves has identified not only the popular but short-lived three-wall structure with niches characteristic of the Sui dynasty, but also a cave structure with an altar set into the front wall (正壁設壇窟), which was only built during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, and a cave structure with three walls, each with an altar (三壁設壇窟). These grotto structures have all been found to share similarities with those in the regions of Hebei, Henan, and Shanxi, which date from the Northern and Southern dynasties to the Sui dynasty. In addition to the different grotto structure, the Sui Mogao Caves contained fewer of the murals of the Buddha's Life Story and the Buddha's Previous Birth Story popular during the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, and instead featured a new style of mural, “Paintings of Sutras”. First, the Murals of the Vimalakirti Sutra in the Sui Mogao Caves depict statues of Vimalakirti and Manjusri sitting inside house-shaped buildings. In fact, this layout differs from that of the Mogao Caves in the Northern and Southern dynasties, and rather seems to be connected with the sculptures inside the grottos, represented by the Liushi Cave of the Longmen Grottos, in the Henan region. A close examination of the painting of the Amitabha Buddha's Pure Land in the Sui Mogao Caves, with the focus on the canvas structure expressing the Western Paradise World and the posture of the Amitabha Triad, revealed many similarities with those of the Nan Xiangtangshan Caves in Northern Qi. The newly discovered details of the structure and murals of the Sui Mogao Caves are different from those of their counterparts in Central Asia, which were strongly reflected in the Dunhuang grottos in the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, and are closely connected with the grottos in the Changan and Luoyang regions of Eastern China in particular. This suggests that, during the Sui dynasty, there was a close interaction between the Dunhuang region and the Changan and Luoyang regions. Among such interactions, human interactions are deemed the most important. First, as regards the movement of people, the examination of history books and cemetery names has made it possible to identify political officials who were appointed to the Dunhuang area from inland China. Second, when the Stupa to Emperor Wen of Sui was erected in 601, it is noted that the monk Jiui, who stayed in the Mogao Caves Jisang monastery-Sunggyo Temple for several years after being sent there, was identified as a monk of Northern Qi lineage. Furthermore, analysis of the Buddhist scriptures discovered in Dunhuang revealed that the monks who lived in Changan moved to the Dunhuang area, suggesting the spread of the Buddhist culture of the Changan and Luoyang regions. Lastly, Emperor Yang's Silk Road initiative was presented as the reason for and background to the massive change that occurred once again in the Mogao Caves during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang sent Baegu to Dunhuang on a diplomatic mission with various western countries, and he himself traveled to the Hexi region in 607. This fact is presumed to constitute the background to the major changes that occurred in Dunhuang, a key center of East-West exchange at that time, and in the Mogao Caves. However, Emperor Yang's Silk Road initiative lost its force with the fall of the dynasty, and, as a result, it is presumed that the excavation of Mogao Caves and new elements also lost the light of their glory.

다목적 선굴(禪窟): 돈황(敦煌) 막고굴(莫高窟) 제285굴(第285窟)의 기능에 대한 재고

권영우 ( Young Woo Kwon ) 중앙아시아학회 2015 中央아시아硏究 Vol.20 No.1

Dunhuang Mogao cave 285 has been considered as the cave that is highly likely to be sponsored by Yuan Rong (r. 525-542), who was the provincial governor of Guazhou at that time, because of well-preserved inscriptions including the absolute date(538, 539 C.E.) on the north wall. Regarding the function of cave 285, however, most scholars have not been able to come up with specific and critical solution more than this cave closely related with meditation practices for Buddhist monks. This speculation was certainly derived from the visual elements of cave 285. First and foremost, the cave is assumed to be modeled after Indian vihara caves. In addition to this, there are two statues depicting monks in meditation enshrined in niches on the west wall, and thirty-five painted monks in meditation in the lower limit of the ceiling. This paper re-examines the original function of cave 285 at the time of its foundation, which begins with the fundamental question what was the initial intention for the occupants at that time to construct this facility. To this end, I will rebuild the intrinsic uniqueness inherent in this cave by comparing with vihara caves and meditation caves in China, Central Asia, and India which exhibit structural resemblance to that of cave 285 firstly. The uniqueness of the cave is found in two aspects. First, its structure seems to be intended more as a ritual space than just ‘dwelling’ and ‘meditative practice’ space. Second, the motifs of meditative monks, expressed in an exaggerated way, emphasized the sanctity of the monks. Finally, I would like to maintain that it was highly possible for cave 285 to be considered as ‘the multipurpose meditation cave’ to practice the ritual ceremonies, such as ordination and repentance ceremony, including meditative practices as well. The two facts that these ritual ceremonies had indivisible relation with meditative practices and the sanctity of the monks, which is emphasized on cave 285 as I pointed out above, also had close link with these two ceremonies in medieval Chinese Buddhism support this assumption. To be more specific, the implicative meaning of hunting motifs on the ceiling and the south wall as well as Buddhist narrative paintings on the south wall also represent the ordination and repentance ceremony. Furthermore, these motifs and paintings might also be understood in the historical context of the period. From late Beiwei period, it was chaotic period for Buddhist community throughout the country that most, if not all, monks and nuns were violating precepts and regulations. Thus, it seems reasonable to assume that the facility to hold the ritual purifying monks, such as cave 285, was needed in the monastic community of Mogao at that time: the community’s will to renovate the precepts is actually shown by texts such as Dunhuang manuscript titled Regulations for the Local Religious Body (Dunhuang ben jiao tuan zhi gui).

돈황(敦煌) 막고굴(莫高窟)의 『화엄경(華嚴經)』 칠처구회도(七處九會圖)에 대한 고찰(考察)

김선희 ( Seonhee Kim ) 한국불교미술사학회(한국미술사연구소) 2015 강좌미술사 Vol.45 No.-

본고는 敦煌 千佛洞인 莫高窟 『화엄경』 칠처구회도의 29 개 窟 중 펠리오의 도록(M. Pelliot:Les Grottes de Touen-Houang)에 제시한 화엄경변상 칠처구회도 제 8 굴·제 102 굴·제 117 굴·제118F 굴·168 굴 등을 대상으로 『화엄경』의 성행과 함께 칠처구회도가 어떻게 형상화되어 표현되었는가를 살피고, 그 도상특징에 대하여 고찰한 글이다. 막고굴 칠처구회도는 唐代에 성행하였고, 五代를 거쳐 宋代에 이르기 까지 變相圖가 계속 그려졌으며, 당시 80 권『화엄경』(695-699 번역)의 流布와 더불어 활발하게 조현됨에 60 권『화엄경』(418-420 번역)의 변상도는 전혀 보이지 않고 80『화엄경』 변상도만 그려졌다는 것을 재확인 하였다. 이 화엄경변상도는 주로 굴의 주실과 전실(7 개 굴)에 그려졌고, 석굴 주실 내에는 거의 북벽(18 개 굴)에 그려졌으며, 그 위치가 빈번하게 법화경변상도와 마주보게 관계하고 있음이 확인되었다. 이것은 조사 지의(智의)(538~597 년)가 설파한 화엄, 법화 양 교의 친근성이 이 돈황에서 화엄학파의 전성기라고 생각되는 五代까지 잔존하고 있었을 것으로 추정된다. 그러나 宋代에 속하는 제118F 굴의 천정면 그림은 사다리꼴 모양의 화면에 9 회 전부를 함께 그리기도 하였다는 점에서 전대와 차이가 있다. 막고굴 칠처구회도는 80 권『화엄경』 중 39 품에 걸쳐 풀이된 교설에 따라 지상과 천상에서 설법한 내용 즉, 부처의 신통과 보살의 공덕을 서술한 경전의 의미를 효과적으로 전달하기 위하여 화면의 중단을 기준으로 7 처 9 회를 좌우대칭으로 배치하였다. 7 처 9 회도의 배열은 굴에 따라 다양한 변화를 보이고 있으나 대체로 ‘毘盧遮那佛과 善財求法圖’, 그리고 須彌山, 香水海의 ‘蓮華藏刹海圖’가 한화면에 충실히 묘사되었다. 이와 다르게 선재구법도만 따로 그려지기도 하였는데, 이는 ‘십지’ 또는 「십지품」의 회화화로 이해될 수 있으며, 왜 「입법계품」(정신세계로 입도)을 변상도로 나타내려 했는지 그 요점을 파악하게 되었다. 이러한 연구는 ‘비로자나불 연화장세계’가 각 시대에 따라 어떻게 가시화되고 이상화되었는가를 파악하는데 일조하리라 생각된다. This essay considers how the Chilcheoguhoedo (七處九會圖; the painting depicting 9 Buddhist congregations in 7 venues), the Byeonsang (變相; marks of transformation) of the Flower Adornment Sutra (the Avatamsaka Sutra) was created and illustrated as this Sutra became widespread, and the characteristics of the iconography are discussed, focusing specifically on caves No.8, No.102, No.117, No.118F and No.168 as defined in Pelliot’s book (M. Pelliot: Les Grottes de Touen-Houang) which are among 29 caves which have the Chilcheoguhoedo of the Flower Adornment Sutra in Mogao Caves (莫高窟), the Thousand Buddha Caves (千佛洞) in Dunhuang (敦煌). The Chilcheoguhoedo in Mogao Caves came into vogue in the period of Tang Dynasty and the Byeonsangdo (變相圖; the painting of marks of transformation) painted between the Five Dynasties to the Song Dynasty. It is confirmed that only the Byeonsangdo of the Flower Adornment Sutra in 80 fascicles (translated in 695-699) was painted due to being widely circulated at the time and had replaced the earlier, the Sutra in 60 fascicles (translated in 418-420). It was mostly painted in the main room and the front room (7 caves) and chiefly on the northern wall in the main room. It is usually located opposite to the Byeonsangdo of the Lotus Sutra (SaddharmapundarikaSutra). This is presumably because the affinity between the Flower Adornment (Avatamsaka) and the Lotus Flower (SaddharmaPundarika) taught by the Patriarch, Zhiyi (智의, 538-597) was still in favor until theFive Dynasties when the Huayan school (華嚴宗; the Flower Adornment school) is thought to have been in its golden days in Dunhuang. But the painting on the ceiling of the cave No.118F was painted containing all of 9 Buddhist congregations in a trapezium screen, which is different from that of the earlier period. The Chilcheoguhoedo in Mogao Caves has bilateral symmetry of 9 Buddhist congregations in 7 venues from the middle part of the picture screen, which was intended to show the meaning of the Sutra. It effectively describes the supernatural power of Buddha and the merits of Bodhisattva, the contents preached in both the earth and the heaven in accordance to the teachings explained through 39 chapters in the Sutra in 80 fascicles. We can see many variations of the arrangement of 9 Buddhist congregations in 7 venues from cave to cave but in general, there are described ‘Vairocana Buddha (毘盧遮那佛) and Sunjaegubeopdo (善財求法圖; the painting of Sudhana’s journey pursuing Dharma)’ and ‘Yeonhwajangchalhaedo’ (蓮華藏刹 海圖; the painting of the Land and the Sea of Lotus Flower of Vairocana Buddha) of Mt. Sumeru and Hyangsuhae (香水海; the Perfume Sea) in a picture. On the other hand, Sunjaegubeopdo is separately painted in some cases, which is understood as picturalizing‘the Ten Stages’ or ‘the chapter of the Ten Stages’ and shows the main points of the reason why the chapter of ‘Entering the Dharma Realm’ (入法界品) was painted into the Byeonsangdo. This study will help understanding how ‘the World of Lotus Flower (Padmagarbhalokadhatu) of Vairocana Buddha’ was visualized and idealized with the times.

돈황 285굴과 골굴석굴의 석굴 구조와 도상의 비교 연구

문명대 ( Moon Myung-dae ) 한국불교미술사학회(한국미술사연구소) 2021 강좌미술사 Vol.56 No.-

돈황 285굴의 석굴 구조와 불상·불화는 서위시대의 가장 중요한 석굴일 뿐더러 벽면의 불상·불화는 이 시대를 대표하는 가장 중요한 불교 미술이다. 이와 함께 신라의 골굴석굴은 이런 실크로드 상의 석굴을 계승하여 조성되었는데 인도나 중국 석굴에 가장 가까워 한국 석굴에서 매우 중요시되고 있다. 첫째, 석굴 주실구조는 돈황 285굴이 정방형에 가까운 평면인데 비하여 골굴 법당굴은 직사각형이어서 대조적이다. 둘째, 돈황 285굴의 불상은 정벽의 주존불만 조성되었는데 주존불은 미륵불의상과 협시보살로 대묘상과 법림보살 등 미륵 삼존상이고, 두 소감실(小龕室)의 상은 유가유식파의 창시자들인 무착과 세친으로 추정된다. 셋째, 돈황 285굴의 4벽과 천정에 전면적으로 벽화가 묘사되어있다. 이 벽화의 특징은 아미타사상(정토3부경)과 법화경사상을 도상화한 내용인데 본존 미륵불에 유가유식사상을 보조하는 사상으로 평가되고 있다. 넷째, 골굴석굴과 돈황 285굴은 구조와 도상 특징 그리고 조형 사상이 같은 점도 있고 다른 점도 있다. 석굴 구조는 전실과 주실로 구성된 구조는 같지만 골굴 법당굴은 주실이 장방형이나 돈황 285굴은 정방형으로 거의 유사하며, 천정은 골굴법당 평천장이나 285굴은 말을 엎은 듯한 복두천정(伏斗天井)이어서 다른 점이다. 또한, 돈황 285굴은 정벽 감실에 미륵삼존불을 주존으로 봉안했으나 골굴 법당굴은 좌우에 불상이 봉안되었으나 정벽에 주존불은 확인할 수 없고 통일신라 마애석가불이 옆 벽면에 마련되어 주존불 역할을 하고 있다. 이와 함께 돈황 285굴의 4벽과 천정은 전체적으로 벽화로 채색되어 있으나 골굴 법당굴은 벽화는 없이 조각으로만 장엄되어 있는 것이 다른 점이다. 다섯째, 돈황 285굴은 창건때는 유가유식사상에 의하여 조성되었는데 여기에 법화사상과 아미타사상이 가미되어 점차 법화와 아미타 신앙으로 확대되었다고 하겠다. 이에 비해 골굴 석굴은 초창때는 유가유식사상이 주신앙이었을 가능성은 있으나 통일신라때는 법화사상이 주신앙이었을 것으로 생각된다. The stone cave structure and Buddhist statues and painting at Dunhuang 285-cave are the most important stone caves in the Western Wei Dynasty, and the Buddhist statues and painting on the wall are the most important Buddhist art representing this era. In addition, Shilla's Golgul Caves were created by inheriting these stone caves on the Silk Road, and as they are closest to those of Indian’s and Chinese stone caves, so they are regarded very important in Korean stone caves. First, the structure of the main chamber of the stone cave is a flat plane with a Dunhuang 285-cave close to a square shape, whereas the Golgul Buddhist sanctum cave is a rectangular shape, which is in contrast. Second, only the Main Buddha Statue on the main wall of Dunhuang 285-cave was built, while the main Buddha statues are Maitreya Buddha statue seated on a chair and accompanying Bodhisattva that are the Maitreya Buddha Triad including Daemyosang and Beoprimbosal, and the images of two small niches (小龕室) are presumed to be Muchak and Sechin, the founders of the Yogacara vijnaptimatra. Third, the mural is depicted throughout the four walls and ceiling of Dunhuang 285-cave. The characteristic of this mural is the content iconographicized from Amitabha thought (Jeongto3bugyeong) and the Lotus Sutra thought, and it is evaluated as a thought that assists the Yogacara vijnaptimatra thought in the main Maitreya Buddha. Fourth, Golgul Caves and Dunhuang 285-cave have the same structure, iconography characteristics, and formative thoughts, and have different points. The stone cave structure is the same structure consisting of the front chamber and the main chamber, but the Golgul Buddhist sanctum cave has a rectangular main chamber, and the Dunhuang 285-cave has a square shape and is almost similar, and the ceiling is the flat ceiling of the Golgul main hall, but the 285-cave is different because it is Bokducheonjeong (伏斗天井) that looks like a horse is upset. In addition, Dunhuang 285-cave enshrined the Maitreya Triad Statue as the main entity in the chamber of the main wall, but in the Golgul Buddhist sanctum cave, Buddha statues were enclosed on the left and right, but the Main Buddha Statues on the front wall were not confirmed, and the rock cliff Shakyamuni Buddha in the unified Shilla is placed on the side wall and serves as the Main Buddha Statue. In addition, the four walls and ceiling of Dunhuang 285-cave are painted entirely with mural paintings, but the difference is that the Golgul Buddhist sanctum cave is magnificent only with sculpture without mural paintings. Fifth, Dunhuang 285-cave was created by the Yogacara vijnaptimatra thought when it was founded, and it is said that here Beobhwa thought and Amitabha thought were added to this and gradually expanded to the Beobhwa and Amitabha faith. In contrast, it is possible that the Yogacara vijnaptimatra thought was the main faith when the Golgul stone cave was first founded, but it is believed that at the time of the Unified Shilla, the Beobhwa thought was the main faith.

한국의 돈황 불교미술 연구 동향: 사고틀의 새로운 모색

임영애 중앙아시아학회 2019 中央아시아硏究 Vol.24 No.1

It has been more than 30 years since Korean academia started studying the art history related to Dunhuang Caves. The research results have been derived since 1981, and it is precisely 39 years old. Although the period of research is quite long, the results of research on Buddhist arts of Dunhuang Caves were more than expected. There are about 120 studies that I have grasped to date. As a matter of fact, this number is not only for studies in the Buddhist art history perspective but rather for all of the research achievements of 'Dunhuang related research history', and ‘costumes history, architects history, and conservation sciences for Dunhuang Buddhist arts'. Of the more than 120 research achievements, there are only 23 research achievements for the past 20 years from 1981 to 2000, and the remaining 100 are obtained from 2000 to 2018. In the meantime, it should be said that the studies on Buddhist arts in Dunhuang Caves started in earnest after year 2000 when exchanges between Korea and China became active and the field survey became easier after reform and opening. In the latter half of the 20th century, when Mogao Grottos in Dunhuang first began to be interested, the mural paintings and sculptures of Mogao Grottos in Dunhuang, which were even unfamiliar to the intellectuals, have grown greatly into an international discipline that now has a deep interest in the general public. This article attempts to explore the perspectives of Korean researchers on Dunhuang Buddhist arts, a treasure house for Buddhist art researchers, and examine what they have accomplished and what they mean. This article also attempts to investigate how research of Dunhuang Buddhist arts in Korea is different from that of China and Japan. At this point, about 30 years since Korean academia started to get interested, it is said that looking back at research in the past is meaningful work to revitalize research in the future.

둔황 석굴의 후원자 호탄국[于?國]왕, 그의 다양한 시각화

임영애 ( Lim Young-ae ) 중앙아시아학회 2016 中央아시아硏究 Vol.21 No.2

At a specific time in the first half of the 10th century, Dunhuang Mogao Cave has two different Khotanese king images. It is the Khotanese King as a supporter of the Dunhuang Mogao Cave and the Khotanese King of the “New-Mode” Manjus`ru (Xinyang Wenshu; 新樣文殊) leading the Manjus´rı. This study seeks to find out why the two images of Khotanese King, with completely different roles, appear at Dunhuang Mogao Cave almost at the same time. For this purpose, this study focused on two questions. One is where a new Manjus´rı Iconography was formed called `Xinyang Wenshu` and the other is why the Khotanese King started to draw Manjus´rı`s lion, which used to be led by Kunlunnu (崑崙奴). This person under the same name with a different role, is Khotanese King, Lishengtien (李聖天). One of the most influential Khotanese kings, he was known as the Lion King (獅子王) to the Dunhuang, who overtook the lion. And the Khotan people believed that the incarnation of Manjus´rı played a major role in making Khotan characters and growing the country. For this reason, the Khotanese King was standing next to Manjus´rı, the lion, and he helped Manjus´rı. The Khotanese King of `Xinyang Wenshu` is not a simple lion trainer but a constitution of a triad form focusing on Manjus´rı with Sudhna. The author says that `Xinyang Wenshu` Iconography, which newly appeared in the early 10th century, was established in Dunhuang, reflecting the creative intentions of Dunhuang forces surrounding him along with Khotanese King, Lishengtien. The printing status of `Xinyang Wenshu` prints is all different, confirming that Dunhuang is the production site of this print. `Xinyang Wenshu` Iconography would have contributed greatly to informing Dunhuang about the influence of the Khotanese King, Lishengtien and Wutaishan faith in Manjus´rı for people who carried it with them and made offerings. In Buddhist art, `icon` is understood as `the expression of contents or teachings in sutras using visual images.` Because the meaning of an icon expressed in image can be grasped properly only based on the knowledge of the contents and belief of Buddhist scripture, the correct understanding of sutras has been regarded as essential for Buddhist art research. However, we should not overlook fact that `icons` depicted in sutras have to be created by someone, and the icon `Xinyang Wenshu` is a representative example showing the process clearly.

돈황막고굴 158굴 열반도상의 연구

유근자 ( Geun Ja Yoo ) 한국불교미술사학회(한국미술사연구소) 2014 강좌미술사 Vol.42 No.-

이 논문은 돈황막고굴 158 굴 열반도상에 대한 연구로, 간다라에서 창안된 열반도상이 돈황석굴에서 어떻게 변화해 갔는지에 관해 고찰한 것이다. 열반도상의 가장 큰 특징은 오른쪽 옆구리를 침상에 댄 횡와(橫臥)한 사자(死者)로서 표현한 붓다의 자세인데, 이것은 간다라에서 처음 형성된 도상이다. 이후 횡와 자세의 열반도상은 열반도상의 가장 중요한 도상으로 자리잡게 되었다. 간다라에서 붓다의 열반을 표현한 불전미술(佛傳美術)로 시작된 열반도상은, 굽타시대인 5 세기경 아잔타 26 굴에서는, 열반에 든 중앙의 붓다 상이 거대해지며, 독립된 예배대상으로서의 성격을 갖게 되었다. 돈황막고굴 158 굴 열반도상 가운데 오른쪽 옆구리를 침상에 대고 횡와한 붓다의 자세 등은 간다라 열반도상을 계승한 것이지만, 새롭게 중앙아시아에서 형성된 도상을 반영하고 있다. 즉 화계삼매 (火界三昧)에 든 마지막 제자 수밧다의 표현과, 몸에 상처를 내며 붓다의 열반을 슬퍼하는 각국 국왕 또는 사신의 표현은 중앙아시아의 문화가 반영된 것이다. 또한 붓다의 등 뒤에 보살무리와 사천왕 및 팔부중을 배치한 것은, 원시 열반경전에 의거한 간다라 도상과는 다른, 대승 열반경전에 의거한 도상이다. 이 외에도 나한의 등장은 가장 이른 시기 중국적 나한신앙의 수용을 의미한다. 도리천에서 하강하는 마야부인 도상은 효를 강조한 유교 사상이 불교에 반영된 것이고, 붓다의 열반 소식을 전해듣고 급히 쿠시나라로 향하는 가섭존자 도상과 대칭을 이루고 있는 점이 특징이다. 따라서 돈황막고굴 158 굴의 열반도상은 중앙의 붓다는 예배상으로서 소조상(塑造像)으로 크게 조성하고, 붓다 주위에는 붓다의 입멸과 관련된 설화적 요소를 벽화로 표현해, 간다라의 초기 열반도상과는 다른 새로운 도상을 창출하고 있다는 점이 주목된다. In order to discuss the transitional development of Buddhist art of Parnivana themes of parinirvana in Cave 158, one of Mogao caves at Dunhuang, were examined through iconographic analysis. It is considered that the iconography of parinirvana which is characterized with the lion’s position, a comfortable posture of laying down on the right side, was originally developed in Gandhara (Ancient India). While the iconography of parinirvana in Cave 158 are basically heir to the iconographic characteristics of traditional Gandharan Buddhist art, some new iconographic elements developed in Central Asia can also be found in the paintings on the wall such as (1) the Buhhha’s last disciple Subhadda who entered into Samadhi representing with flame around his body, and (2) Mouring gestures of rulers of many countries expressing grief, representing as form of self-inflicted pain. It is also noted that, among the themes of the parinirvana scene “Vajrapani” is often seen in Gandharan art based on Hinayana Nirvana Sutra. However, the themes of “Bodhisattvas”, “Four Devas”, and “Eight Classes of Divine Beings”, represented in the painting of the parinirvana scene in the Cave 158, are develoed based on the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, and are not found in Gandharan art of Parinirvana. In addition, for the first time in china, the 16 Arahats are represented in the parinirvana scene of cave 158 at Dunhuang. This shows the absorbtion of chinese peligious belief of arahats. It seems that the scene of “Lady Maya descending from Trayastrimsa (道利天)” painted on the upper part of right wall was influenced by the idea of confucianism which emphasizes the thought of filial piety, and this scene stands in contrast to the image of “Mahakasyapa hurrying up to Kushinagar” painted on the upper part of left wall. It is noticeable that Sakyamuni is represented on the center with large-sized clay statue as the object of worship and paintings on the walls are represented with narrative elements closely related with death of Buddha in Cave 158 showing new iconographic characteristics of parinirvana scene quite different from early Gandharan examples.

敦煌 莫高窟 第158窟에 내재된 불교사상 연구

최재목(Choi, Jae-Mok),조숙경(Jo, Sook-Gyeong) 한국동양철학회 2014 동양철학 Vol.0 No.41

이 논문은 敦煌 莫高窟 가운데, 唐代의 吐蕃 점령기에 조성된, 第158窟에 내재한 불교사상을 연구하려는 것이다. 158굴에서는 소조와 벽화에 있어서 높은 작품성과 질서가 느껴지는데 이는 당대의 완성도 높은 불교문화와 토번통치기라는 시대상황이 반영된 것으로 보여진다. 158굴의 경변화는 전시대인 수대보다 내용이 더 복잡해지고 경변의 수도 많아진다. 당대에 조성되어진 돈황석굴 중에서도 토번 통치기라는 특수한 상황 안에서 조성되어진 158굴 연구는 당대의 중국화 되어가는 과정에 있는 불교가 토번의 문화와 사상을 어떻게 받아들이고 예술로 승화시켰는지에 대한 연구를 통하여 돈황미술연구에 일조하고자한다. 이 논문에서는 굴의 전체적인 구도를 파악한 후 서 · 남 · 북벽의 소조상과 동 · 서 · 남 · 북벽의 벽화를 살펴보고, 벽화로 그려진 경변을 경전의 내용으로 살펴보았다. 그 결과 다음의 내용을 알 수 있었다. 첫째, 158굴에 세벽에 안치된 소조상을 통하여 과거불, 미래불, 현세불인 삼세불이 있으며, 천정의 정토변으로 표현된 10방불들과 어우려져 화신불, 법신불, 보신불이 내재되어 있음을 알 수 있다. 둘째, 158굴은 당대 중기의 토번통치기의 굴이다. 당대는 측천무후와의 정치적 역학관계가 이입되어 공고해진 화엄사상의 흐름이 이 시기까지 지속되었으며, 대승의 교리 또한 깊어진다. 소조상과 경변의 짜임새 있는 배치와 함께 경을 해석하여 그림으로 옮길 때 국가 수호의 의지도 곁들여 놓았다. 또한 다양한 경변화와 함께 천정에 그려진 천불과 보살들의 그림에서는 수행을 통하여 누구든지 깨달음을 받을 수 있다는 평등한 사상이 158굴 안에 내재되어있다. 셋째, 158굴은 벽면 곳곳에 보살상들이 보이는데, 현실 뿐 만아니라 시방세계, 모든 세계에 상주해있다는 것을 보여주고자 하고 있다. 서벽, 남벽, 동벽의 벽화에 내재된 보살이 현세에서 고통 받는 중생들 구제라는 대승적인 의미가 천정의 정토변에 이어져 있으며, 이것으로 대승사상과 정토사상 그리고 밀교사상이 복합되어 있음을 알 수 있다. 이처럼 158굴은 긴 장방형의 전실의 사방 벽과 천정의 공간을 질서 있게 배치하였다. 삼세불의 입상을 통하여 과거, 현재, 미래에도 부처가 존재하며, 동,서,남,북 뿐만아니라 간방(間方)까지 합쳐 삼라만상 어디에나 부처가 존재함을 보여주고 있다. 이런 시방삼세불(十方三世佛)은 밀교에서 강하게 보여주고 있으며 만다라적 구도에서 확인할 수 있다. 이는 불교의 성행과 아울러 토번통치기의 민중들의 애환을 달래주고자하는 의도가 함께 담겨 있는 부분이다. Mogao Cave 158 in Dunhuang(敦煌 莫高窟 第158窟) was built under the occupation of Tufan(吐蕃/土蕃/土番), the Tibetan Empire. The sculptures and iconographic wall paintings called Gyeongbyeon in Mogao Cave 158 include the Buddhism of the Tang Dynasty. Gaseop, the Buddha of past, Seokga, the Buddha of present, and Maitreya, the Buddha of future were molded on the south wall, the west wall, and the north wall. Geum-gwang-myeonggyeong-byeon and Sa-ik-beom-cheon-so-mun-gyeong-byeon were painted on the east wall that faces the statue of nirvana enshrined on the west wall. In addition, Yeo-ui-ryun-gwan-eum-mandala, a round Buddha’s picture was painted on the door of the east wall. On the ceiling, Jeong-to-byeon, Cheon-bul-do, and Bo-sal-do were painted. I studied the sculptures and the mural paintings of Cave 158 with Buddhist scriptures. This paper includes three points as below. The center of this cave is the Buddha statue of nirvana enshrined on the west wall. On its one side, the statue of the past buddha Gaseop stands, the south wall. On the other side, the statue of the future buddha Maitreya stands, the north wall. On the wall behind the Buddha statue of nirvana, there are the paintings of Bosal(Buddhist saints’ images), Na-han-yeol-sang, Sa-cheon-wang-sang(four Devas’ images), Cheon-ryong-pal-bu. At the bottom of this wall, there is Su-bal-da-ra-seon-bul-ip-myeol-do. There is the painting of Mourning Disciples(Je-ja-geo-ae-do) on the south wall, and the painting of Mourning Potentates(gak-guk-guk-wang-geo-ae-do) on the north wall. These works don’t seem to be just the description of the situation when Buddha entered into nirvana. One description of nirvana of Buddha recorded in Dae-ban-yeol-ban-gyeong written by Dam-mu-cham mentioned like this:“The holy body of Buddha is unchangeable and immortal, so all living beings have the nature of Buddha. That is the thought of Mahayana Buddhism.” Buddha entering the nirvana in reverence means the thought of Beopsin. Buddha appears as the body of the truth. Beopsin is Buddha that is the body of the truth itself and shows the truth as it is. The past Buddha Gaseop and the future Buddha Maitreya are the Buddha of Hwasin. Buddhas enshrined on the Buddha land in Jeong-to-byeon painted on the ceiling are the Buddha of Bosin. In Cave 158, there are Buddhas of Three Ages, those are the Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. And the Buddhas of Three Ages lead to the Buddha of Hwasin, the Buddha of Beopsin, and the Buddha of Bosin with Buddhas on the Pure Land in the ceiling. Mogao Cave 158 was built under the occupation of Tufan in the Middle Tang period. During the Tang Dynasty the stream of Hwaeom Idealism was settled and continued, and Mahayana Buddhism became profound. Well-organized arrangement of the sculptures and the wall paintings derived not only from the interpretation of Buddhist scriptures but also from the will of protecting the country. The wall paintings of Gyeongbyeon and the ceiling paintings shows each and every person can find enlightenment through practicing asceticism. That is the ideology of equality presented in Cave 158. The sculptures and paintings on the walls and the ceiling are expanded version of the mandala composition whose scale is expanded to the entire cave. We can find a lot of images of bodhisattva all over the walls. That tells us bodhisattva exists in everywhere in the ideal worlds as well as the real world. These bodhisattvas save the people in sufferings in this world, and that is Mahayana Buddhism. The thought of Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhist Elysium, and Esoteric Buddhism are compounded and connected to Jeong-to-byeon in the ceiling. The statues of Buddha mean that Buddha exists everytime, in the past, the present, and the future. Those also show us Buddha exists every directions and everywhere in the universe. All of these are intended for the prevalence of Buddhism and for comforting the people in hard tims of the occupation

당대(唐代) 돈황 막고굴(敦煌莫高窟) 관경변상도(觀經變相圖)에 대한 고찰

김선희 ( Kim Seon Hee ) 인도철학회 2021 印度哲學 Vol.- No.63

돈황 막고굴(莫高窟) <관경변상도(觀經變相圖)>는 당대(唐代)에 성행하여 오대(五代), 송대(宋代)에 이르기까지 그려졌다. 특히 당대에는 『관무량수경(觀無量壽經)』, 『아미타경(阿彌陀經)』 등의 정토경전(淨土經典) 유형이 많이 그려졌다. 『관경(觀經)』에 관한 경변(經變)은 주로 굴(窟)의 남벽에 그려졌는데 구도의 배치는 굴에 따라 다소 차이가 있다. 서방정토(西方淨土)의 정경을 묘사한 ‘정토변(淨土變) 형식’, 외연부를 생략하고 정토 장면만 묘사한 ‘간략화된 형식’ 등이 있다. 이를 『관무량수경』 경문과 함께 분석 검토한 결과, 커다란 구품연지(蓮池)는 언제나 하단 중앙에 자리하고 있으며, ‘아미타극락회’와 ‘관경의 16관’ 등의 장소를 재확인할 수 있었다. 각 品(상황)을 독립적으로 나누어 표현하고 있으나 상호 조화와 균형을 이루면서 정체감(正體感, identity)을 주고 있다. 그 표현의 면면을 살펴보면 부처나 보살은 풍만(豐潤)하고, 원만(渾圓)하며 서역의 음영법이 늦게까지 나타나고 있다. 필선(線條)은 활발하면서도 유연하고 색채는 화려(富麗)한 서역 요소와 함께 중국 전통의 운염법이 가미되어 있다. 이러한 경향은 초·성당기 제217굴이나 제220굴, 제320굴 등의 벽화에서 그 절정을 이루고 중당대인 토번 점령에 들어서면서 점차 쇠퇴하고 만당기에는 제156굴·제16굴·제17굴·제196굴 등에 서 볼 수 있듯이 거칠고 형식화된 그림으로 흘렀다. < The Paintings of the Paradise of Amitabha > in Mogao Caves in Dunhuang (莫高窟) were prevalent in the Tang Dynasty (唐代) and were drawn until the Song Dynasty (宋代) during five successive reigns (五代). Especially in the Tang Dynasty (唐), many types of pure land scriptures (淨土經典) including 『The Amitayurdhyana Sutra (觀無量壽經)』 and 『The Amitabha Buddha Sutra (阿彌陀經)』 were drawn. Illustrations (經變) about 『the Paradise of Amitabha (觀經)』 were usually drawn on the southern wall of the caves and the arrangements were somewhat different from caves. There were ‘the pure land painting (淨土變) style’ to draw situations of Western pure land (西方淨土), and 'the simplified style' to describe only pure land scenes without any external parts. The result which analyzed and examined < The Paintings of the Paradise of Amitabha > with the Buddhist scriptures of 『The Amitayurdhyana Sutra』 could be found that the nine grades of large ponds (蓮池) are always located in the center at the bottom and places of the Pure Land of Utmost Bliss of Amitabha Buddha’ and ‘16 paintings of the paradise’ were reconfirmed. Each situation (品) is independently divided and expressed, but they have identity harmonizing with one another and achieving a balance. These murals have the parts which cannot be decoded because of their serious wear and tear, but they can be found to try to be eloquent of situations of the Pure Land of the Utmost Bliss (極樂世界) of Amitabha Buddha (阿彌陀淨土) described in the scriptures with paintings. Examining various sides of the expressions, Buddha or bodhisattva have chubby and shiny (豐潤) faces and curved (渾圓) bodies and Western shading remained on them. The lines (線條) are active and flexible and the colors include Chinese traditional dyeing method with externally splendid (富麗) Western elements. This tendency reached a climax in the murals of the 217th, 220th, 320th caves in the early Tang Dynasty, gradually declined as Tibetan people occupied in the mid Tang Dynasty, and turned into the tough and formalized paintings as shown in the paintings in the 156th, 16th, 17th, and 196th caves in the late Tang Dynasty.

둔황 막고굴 천장 연화 속 세 토끼 모티프 고찰: 407굴을 중심으로

이해주 단국대학교 동양학연구원 2023 東洋學 Vol.- No.91

The ceilings of the 18 Shu dynasty burial chambers of the Mogao cave in Dunhuang depict three hares, sharing ears, running in a circle in the center of a lotus flower in full bloom. This study examines the context in which this unprecedented hare iconography was adopted to decorate the ceilings of the Mogao cave. Since the three hares are the subject of the decoration, this study first examines the Buddhist view of the hares. In Indian Buddhist culture, a hare is recognized as an animal that was granted eternal life on the moon for its meritorious service to monks. Therefore, it is perceived as one of Buddha’s past lives. By visualizing the Jataka tales, this study establishes a foundation for the future use of hare motifs in Buddhist art. Furthermore, this study explores the various perspectives on hares in ancient Chinese culture, where hares were part of the cultural landscape long before the introduction of Buddhism. The hare was recognized as a symbol of fertility and longevity, and was featured in a bronze statue, while also serving as an agent of Xi Wang Mu for immortality medicine and a messenger that guides the deceased to the heavenly realm. Additionally, the hare was regarded as an immortal spirit that resides on the moon, with the moon image being an important iconography in traditional Chinese beliefs about hares. In Chinese beliefs, hares were often depicted as celestial beings living on the moon alongside toads, and these beliefs incorporated various positions and postures depicted in the original images of hares. This study elucidates how the spread of Buddhism was linked to the growing significance of hares in moon imagery, as well as the evolution of hare iconography to portray the act of pounding medicines in a mortar. In essence, Buddhist interpretations of pre-existing iconography reinforced the image of hares, as there was a shared belief in Buddhist- Chinese culture that hares inhabited the moon. To interpret the significance of the three hares depicted in the Mogao cave, this study also examined West Asian elements, such as the scarves around the hares’ necks and the pearl-round motifs found in Mogao Cave 407. In West Asia, animals wearing scarves represent messengers who guide the souls of the dead to the afterlife. However, in Mogao cave, by tying the sign of the messenger around the necks of hares and placing the lotus flower, which represents the Pure Land, at the center, the image wishes for the soul’s ascension and eternal life in paradise. In light of these observations, the three hares depicted in Mogao Cave 407 represent a unique fusion of traditional Chinese beliefs about hares and West Asian rebirth motifs, with Buddhist beliefs about rebirth and eternal life, conveying a Buddhist message. The interconnectedness of the hares, symbolized by their shared ears, represents a cohesive group, akin to the Three Jewels in Buddhism. The circular motion of the running hares, reminiscent of a rolling wheel, represents the concept of reincarnation, while the unceasing rotation without a clear beginning or end exemplifies the eternal nature of Buddhist teachings. 둔황 막고굴의 18개 隋唐代 굴실 천장에는 만개한 연꽃의 중심에서 귀를 공유한 토끼 세 마리가 원을 이뤄한 방향으로 힘차게 달리는 모습이 그려졌다. 이 글에서는 전례를 찾아볼 수 없는 이러한 토끼 도상이 막고굴천장 장식에 채택된 배경을 고찰했다. 세 토끼가 석굴사원의 장식 소재이므로 먼저 토끼에 대한 불교적 관점을 검토했는데, 인도 불교문화에서 토끼는 수도자를 위해 소신공양한 공덕으로 달에서 영원히 살게 된 동물로인식됨으로써(本生譚), 붓다의 전생 존재 중 하나라는 불교적 위상을 확보했다. 그리고 이러한 본생담 장면을시각화하여(本生圖), 장차 토끼 모티프가 불교미술에 채용될 수 있는 기반을 마련했다. 이와 더불어 불교 전래이전부터 토끼를 신앙하는 문화적 풍토가 있었던 고대 중국문화의 토끼에 대한 다양한 관점도 살펴봤다. 토끼는 다산·장수의 상징이자, 청동 제기의 형상으로 만들어질 정도의 神獸, 不死藥을 만드는 서왕모의 권속, 망자를 신속하게 천계로 안내하는 메신저, 달에 사는 불사의 정령 등으로 인식되었다. 그중 月像을 토끼에 대한중국 재래 신앙이 응축된 도상이라 보았는데, 여기서 토끼는 두꺼비와 함께 달에 사는 천상적 존재로 표현되는동시에 기존의 토끼 도상에서 선보였던 여러 자세를 모두 취한다. 이때, 월상에서 토끼의 비중이 점차 증가하고, 토끼의 자세가 차츰 약 방아를 찧는 모습으로 귀결되는 양상에 대해 불교의 확산과 토착화라는 시대상과관련지어 서술했다. 끝으로, 막고굴에 표현된 세 토끼 도상을 해석하기 위해 막고굴 407굴 토끼의 목에 감긴스카프, 연주문과 같은 서아시아적인 요소를 언급했다. 서아시아에서 스카프를 맨 동물은 망자의 영혼을 저승으로 인도하는 메신저를 뜻한다. 그런데 막고굴에서는 토끼의 목에 메신저의 징표를 묶어 極樂淨土를 나타내는 연꽃의 중심에 배치함으로써, 영혼의 승천과 극락에서의 영생을 기원했다. 이러한 맥락에서, 막고굴 407굴의 세 토끼 도상은 중국 재래의 토끼에 대한 신앙과 서아시아의 재생 모티프가 불교의 본생담 및 영생을 기원하는 정토 신앙과 융합해 불교적 메시지를 설파하는 독특한 도상으로 파악했다. 또한 세 토끼가 귀를 공유하며 한 세트임을 암시하므로 세 귀로 구성된 삼각형에서 佛·法·僧 三寶의 상징을, 마치 바퀴 굴러가듯 한 방향으로 원을 이뤄 계속 달리는 모습에서 윤회전생의 교의를, 시작과 끝을 알 수 없이 연속되는 회전의 속성에서는 佛法의 영원성에 대한 표상 등의 의의를 도출했다.