China, An Upstream Hegemon: A Destabilizer for the Governance of the Mekong River?

한희진 인하대학교 국제관계연구소 2017 Pacific Focus Vol.32 No.1

Transboundary rivers have remained one of the sources of contention and cooperation among states in international politics. The Mekong is one such river along which China and five Southeast Asian countries have organized their political, economic, and social lives. Studies examining the water politics of this river have argued that the lack of a comprehensive institution to govern this regional common pool resource and the growing power asymmetry between China, an upstream riparian state, and its Southeast Asian neighbors dampen the prospect for an effective governance of the river. Particularly, the economic rise of China and its concomitant increase in demand for energy and water resources has raised concerns about the negative impacts that this would have on the downstream countries. Examination of recent developments regarding the Mekong River suggests, however, that China has adopted a more collaborative approach by engaging in joint development projects and exchanging information and technology via existing sub-regional and regional multilateral bodies since the early 2000s. The study concludes that this growing evidence of cooperation should be taken into consideration for a more comprehensive understanding of China’s policy towards the Mekong River.

Institutional Frameworks for Development and Management of the Mekong River’s Water Resources

Tran Diep Thanh,김종수 경인행정학회 2018 한국정책연구 Vol.18 No.4

The Mekong River which is shared commonly by six countries: China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, is one of the world’s great river systems. The source of the river’s great productivity is its seasonal variation in water level and the range of wetland habitats. Its biodiversity is fundamental to the viability of natural resource-based rural livelihoods of a current population of more 80 million people living in the total basin. The River is used for many purposes and belongs to each of the six basin countries and provides rich potential in hydropower, agriculture, and aquaculture...This also leads to some challenges and controversies faced by all countries in the basin relating to utilising, developing and managing the River’s water resources in a sustainable and effective way. Although the four lower downstream basin has their own cooperation frameworks including the “historic” 1995 Agreement and the Mekong River Commission (the MRC) with a series of Procedures and Processes of water utilisation and diversion in theory, some large dams and water utilisation projects are being conducted and have plan to use unilaterally on the River and its tributaries in practice. As a result, after 23 years establishment of the MRC, this regional institution of the four lower downstream countries has not achieved completely its functions and missions given by the 1995 Agreement. The MRC is not an “antidote” to deal with conflicts and issues on utilisation and management of water resources. The paper will analyse institutional legal and framework of the 1995 Agreement and finally give suggestions about sustainable development and management of Mekong River’s water resources in the time to come.

메콩 수자원 개발 이익과 비용 주체의 쟁점과 갈등: 본류 댐 싸야부리와 돈사홍을 중심으로

이요한 ( Yo Han Lee ) 한국동남아학회 2014 동남아시아연구 Vol.24 No.4

While natural and ecological integration in the Mekong River basin were well-sustained for thousands of years, for now being segmented by 6 national borders, the cost and benefit of the Mekong River development was divided with asymmetry structure. There have been serious controversies and conflicts among Mekong River riparian states with regard to various kind of the Mekong development, especially on the construction of hydropower dam in the Mekong mainstream. Recently the issues were even more complicated by the participation of private enterprises and Non-government organization(NGO). The article makes effort to synthesize the benefits and costs of each stakeholder who is participating in the Mekong hydropower development. Thus, this study attempts to make different research outcomes with the existing studies, observing the each and all perspectives of states, civil society, international organizations and enterprises on Mekong River development with objective descriptions. Then it analyses to recognize with balanced perspective what the essence and current affairs is on the Mekong River hydropower development. The article will also examines the distinct standpoints of each stakeholder groups, whether the support or oppositions on the Mekong River development, that were the states`` development strategy, economic interests, political power, environmental considerations and the rights to live of local residents in the River.

메콩 유역의 국별 개발 전략과 협력 거버넌스의 현황과 과제

이요한 ( Yo Han Lee ) 한국외국어대학교 동남아연구소 2015 東南亞硏究 Vol.25 No.2

Mekong River is an international river which shares its basin with 6 riparian states including China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam and maintains one ecosystem for thousands of years. Due to economic potential, Mekong River Basin(MRB) has been developed rapidly in these days, thus there are a number of infrastructure projects already done or on-going in this area. However, it brought out tensions and conflicts among the riparian states. The benefits and costs of its economic development were distributed unfairly without consensus among its relevant states and stake-holders. The role of the multinational Mekong governance in MRB has been taken a of solving and/or mitigating with the discrepancy in the development of Mekong river. The article dose not only addresses the riparian states’ perspectives and strategies on the development of MRB, but also examines the current affairs and limitation of the existing multinational governance such as Mekong River Commission (MRC), Greater Mekong Subregion(GMS), ASEAN-Mekong Basin Development Cooperation(AMBDC), and Mekong Water Dialogue(MWD) based on the viewpoint of each Mekong riparian government. Then, it finds out some critical factors to establish more efficient Mekong governance beyond the function and role of current governance

동아시아에서의 초국경환경오염에 대한 국제협력노력 -동남아시아를 중심으로-

채영근 ( Young Geun Chae ) 한국환경법학회 2007 環境法 硏究 Vol.29 No.1

In East Asia, various trans-boundary environmental pollution problems have been appearing. For example, in Mekong river basin, upper riparian country China already developed two hydraulic dams and is constructing or plans to build six more causing various damages to downstream countries. In Southeast Asia, haze pollution which resulted from annually repeated forest fires, most seriously from Indonesia, is causing serious health and economic problems in the region, especially Singapore and Malaysia. Repeated accidents at the chemical factories northeast China caused serious contamination of Songhwa River which runs up north to Russian Amur River. ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations) member countries succeeded in developing regional environmental cooperation regimes concerning sustainable development of Mekong River basin and haze pollution. The "Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin" (hereinafter "Mekong Agreement") was signed by Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. The upper riparian countries China and Myanmar did not participate in the agreement. The Mekong agreement created Mekong commission for the mission of implementing the agreement. The agreement also adopted various latest principles of international environmental law such as precautionary rule, state responsibility rule, and dispute resolution rule and so on. ASEAN Agreement on Trans-boundary Haze Pollution (hereinafter "Haze Agreement") also established another regional institution to provide various preventive and supportive activities when fires appear in the region. Unlike Mekong agreement, this agreement did not adopt the state responsibility rule either the dispute resolution by the third party. This agreement also allows each party`s sovereignty untouched. Member countries cannot provide any aid even in emergency situation unless the exact party says so. In the Northeast Asia, on the contrary, there is no regional treaty concerning trans-boundary pollution. Unlike Southeast Asia, the region experienced wars to each other last century. Consisted with powerful neighbors, power competition in the region still exists. Military tension throughout the Korean peninsula, the center of the region did not fade out yet. However recently Russia-China relationship has been smoothed and Korea and Japan take environmental pollution from China into consideration. High ranked officials from the regional countries regularly convene and share information concerning environmental conditions of the region. There is more than enough reason to adopt regional environmental cooperative regime. At this moment, the Northeast Asian countries had better keep developing trust to each other. And it seems to me that the ASEAN Haze Agreement could be an ideal model for the Northeast Asian regional regime.

메콩유역의 수력발전개발: 하이드로-헤게모니 방식을 통한 분석을 중심으로

이승호 ( Dr Seungho Lee ) 한국외국어대학교 동남아연구소 2013 東南亞硏究 Vol.23 No.1

이 연구는 메콩유역의 5 개 연안국가, 즉 중국, 라오스, 태국, 베트남,캄보디아 간의 복잡한 이해관계를 1990 년대 중반부터 가속화된 수력발전개발을 중심으로 분석하였다. 특히 본 연구는 메콩유역 최상류 국가로서 1980 년대 말부터 하류국가와의 사전 협의없이 수력 발전댐 개발을 해 오고 있는 중국에 주목한다. 이론적 틀로서 제시한 하이드로-헤게모니 이론과 이익공유 이론은 메콩강을 이용함에 있어 수력발전댐을 일방적으로 건설하면서 보여 준 중국의 행태가 이해공유라는 새로운 협력체계로 변화하는 현상을 분석하는데 유용하다. 메콩강 상류의 중국 수력발전댐들은 민물고기생산 및 쌀생산 감소, 수생태계 파괴등 환경전반에 걸쳐 치명적인 영향을 미칠 수 있다는 점에서 하류 연안국들의 강한 반발을 사 왔다. 중국은 메콩유역협의체인 메콩유역위원회 참여를 거부하면서 일방적으로 댐 건설을 계속했으나 최근 중국의 대 메콩유역국가에 대한 경제적 이해가 증대하면서 태도변화를 보이고 있다. 이런 현상은 메콩유역에서의 가장 강력한 헤게모니 국가인중국이 비헤게모니 국가인 하류 연안국들과의 불만과 요구를 더 이상무시하지 않고 점차 협력적으로 변화해 감을 시사한다. 메콩유역에서수자원개발 및 물과 무관한 경제분야협력은 중국과 하류 연안국가간의 향후 상호협력을 증대시키는 주요한 열쇠가 될 것이다. The study evaluates the complexity of the relationship between the five states in the Mekong River Basin ? China, and the four lower riparian countries, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia - since the mid-1990s with special reference to hydropower development. Particular attention is paid to China, the upstream country in the basin, which has pushed forward its dam projects since the late 1980s without adequate consultations with the other riparian states. As an analytical framework, the hydro-hegemony theory is deployed to analyze the interactions between the riparian states together with discussion of the different types of benefit sharing that delineates the way China has changed its behaviors towards the four riparian states. The on-going construction of the Chinese dams in the upper basin appears to have far-reaching impacts on the lower basin, such as a remarkable drop in fish yields, a reduction in crop production, and serious damage to the river`s ecosystems. China has refused to participate in the framework of the Mekong River Commission but has recently attempted to improve relationships with the other riparian states for its economic gains. This implies that the hegemon in the Mekong area gradually adopts the cooperative mode rather than ignoring the other riparian states` demands for benefit sharing. The major discourse on hydropower development for economic development can facilitate more conversations between the riparian states for future cooperation. The establishment of a new form of cooperation between the riparian countries hinges upon how to pursue economic development together with developing water resources and nonwater resources.

Hydropower Development in the Mekong River Basin - Analysis through the Hydro-Hegemonic Approach -

이승호 한국외국어대학교 동남아연구소 2013 東南亞硏究 Vol.23 No.1

The study evaluates the complexity of the relationship between the five states in the Mekong River Basin – China, and the four lower riparian countries, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia - since the mid-1990s with special reference to hydropower development. Particular attention is paid to China, the upstream country in the basin, which has pushed forward its dam projects since the late 1980s without adequate consultations with the other riparian states. As an analytical framework, the hydro-hegemony theory is deployed to analyze the interactions between the riparian states together with discussion of the different types of benefit sharing that delineates the way China has changed its behaviors towards the four riparian states. The on-going construction of the Chinese dams in the upper basin appears to have far-reaching impacts on the lower basin, such as a remarkable drop in fish yields, a reduction in crop production, and serious damage to the river’s ecosystems. China has refused to participate in the framework of the Mekong River Commission but has recently attempted to improve relationships with the other riparian states for its economic gains. This implies that the hegemon in the Mekong area gradually adopts the cooperative mode rather than ignoring the other riparian states’ demands for benefit sharing. The major discourse on hydropower development for economic development can facilitate more conversations between the riparian states for future cooperation. The establishment of a new form of cooperation between the riparian countries hinges upon how to pursue economic development together with developing water resources and nonwater resources.

메콩강 상류의 댐 건설이 강 하류의 커뮤니티에 미친 영향: 태국 치앙라이의 사례

( Silsupa Wiwatwicha ),( Edo Andriesse ) 한국동남아학회 2020 동남아시아연구 Vol.30 No.2

본 연구는 강의 상류에서 일어나는 건설 행위가 하류 커뮤니티의 생계에 미친 영향에 대해 고찰한다. 특히, 태국 북부의 치앙라이 소재 세 개 군에 위치한 커뮤니티를 분석 대상으로 삼는다. 치앙라이는 라오스, 미얀마와 국경을 공유하고 있고 태국 내 지역으로는 메콩강 가장 상류에 위치한다. 여러 선행연구는 사회생태학적, 사회경제적 영향에 집중하였으나 본 연구는 태국어 문헌에 근거하여 사회문화적 측면도 강조한다. 사회경제적 영향은 대개 무형적(intangible)이지만 않지만 풍부하고 유서 깊은 전통을 가진 강둑 커뮤니티에게 중요하다. 상류의 개발에 대한 하류 커뮤니티의 인식은 지역문화, 믿음과 정체성의 소실에 대한 우려로 대표된다. 하지만 커뮤니티 생태계에 대한 이러한 위협은 한편으로 지역 시민사회 행동주의를 촉진하였고, 나아가 사회통합에 기여했다고 볼 수 있다. 생계와 커뮤니티에 미친 영향을 통해 우리는 흥미로운 역설을 발견한다. 변화하는 메콩생태계는 경제학적인 측면에서는 사회분열처럼 보일지도 모른다. 하지만 사회문화적으로 접근하면, 개발사업 허가를 내리는 권위주의적 결정들에 저항할 역량을 키운다고 볼 수 있다. 연구의 이러한 분석결과는 지역 거주민과의 소통 실패, 거시경제적 이익에 대한 집중, 미래의 생태계 변화에 대한 지역 커뮤니티와의 미비한 소통 수준 등으로 인한 정책 입안 과정의 문제점을 반영한다. 후속 연구에 대한 제언으로 본 연구는 마무리된다. This paper investigates the perceived impacts of upstream river activities upon the livelihoods and community of riverbank villagers in downstream waters. The case study focuses on communities in three districts of Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand. The Province borders Laos and Myanmar and is the most upstream Thai province along the Mekong River. While many studies have focused on the socio-ecological and socio-economic effects, we also emphasize socio-cultural aspects, based on a reading of mostly Thai language sources. These aspects are often intangible, yet no less important for the overall well-being of river bank communities with rich and long standing traditions. However, the perceived threats to such intangible, yet vital, elements to the community’s ecology have reinvigorated activism of local civil society, and hence, could be seen as a positive to social cohesion. Combining the insights from the perceived livelihoods and community impacts generates an interesting paradox: The changing Mekong ecology leads to an erosion of local cohesion in the economic sphere, but to a strengthening and empowerment in resistance against government decisions and policies. These results reflect problems in policy-making processes with respect to (1) failures to engage with the local population; (2) a strong focus on economic gains at the macro-level; and (3) weak communication with local communities regarding forthcoming ecological changes. The paper concludes by providing suggestions for further research.

Navigating the Hydroelectric Dam Disputes in the Mekong River: A Psychological Game Theory Analysis

금유진,김종섭 한국동남아학회 2023 동남아시아연구 Vol.33 No.4

The hydroelectric dam dispute in the Mekong River has escalated, posing threats to dam development, economic growth, and regional security. In pursuit of understanding the pivotal factors impeding sustainable dam construction, this study performs a comparative analysis of three mainstream hydroelectric dams in Laos: Xayaburi, Don Sahong, and Pak Beng Dams. The psychological game theory (PGT) proves instrumental in dissecting the fundamental rationale underpinning each country’s strategic yet occasionally irrational decision. By applying PGT to the three dams, this study uncovers that political asymmetry, mainly due to the inclusion of a powerful country, prompts participants to shift from a neutral to a fearful state of mind, leading to a seemingly irrational decision; the cessation of the Pak Beng Dam. The research findings hold substantial implications for hydroelectric dam discourse, as they open the avenue for fostering sustainable dam development, enhancing economic development, and bolstering regional security in the Mekong River.

메콩강 수력발전댐 개발에 대한 하류국가 캄보디아 정부의 태도 변화: 그 배경과 영향 요인

전은정,윤순진 한국동남아학회 2018 동남아시아연구 Vol.28 No.1

전 세계적인 물 부족 현상이 심화됨에 따라 국제 하천을 둘러싼 국가 간의 갈등이 심화되고 있다. 메콩강은 6개 국가가 공유하는 동남아시아의 대표적인 국제하천으로, 경제가 성장함에 따라 수 력발전은 메콩 유역국들의 증가하는 전력 수요를 충족시키기 위 한 주요한 전력 공급방식이 되었다. 그러나 강 상류 지역의 수력발 전은 강 생태계 전체에 부정적인 영향을 미치고 특히 하류지역민 들의 삶에 상당한 영향을 미치기 때문에 메콩강의 댐 건설은 지속 적인 논란의 대상이 되고 있다. 국제하천에서 발생하는 논란을 이 해하기 위해서는 이를 공유하는 여러 국가의 각각 다른 입장을 모두 고려해야 한다. 그러나 지금까지 메콩 수력발전에 대한 특정 국가의 입장이나 태도를 분석한 연구는 중국과 라오스를 중심으 로이루어져왔다. 이에 이 연구에서는다른유역국들 중 메콩강 하류에 위치하여 수력발전으로 인한 이익을 얻기보다는 비용을 부담하게 될 가능성이 높은 캄보디아 정부의 입장을 연구하였다. 캄보디아 정부는 메콩 상류의 수력발전에 대해 어떠한 태도를 보 이고 있으며 그러한 태도는 어디에서 기인하는가? 연구를 통해 메 콩강에 건설되는 댐에 대한 캄보디아 정부의 지지 입장을 확인할 수 있었다. 또한 이러한 입장의 형성에는 1) 중국과의 경제적 비대 칭성, 2) 라오스에 대한 전력 의존도와 지리적 비대칭성, 3) 캄보디 아 국내의 전력 계획 상 수력발전의 중요성이 크게 영향을 미쳤을 것으로 파악되었다.