Shakespeare’s Drama in View of the Indian Aesthetic Theory of Rasa

김창호 한국셰익스피어학회 2014 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.50 No.4

Human feelings have been categorized into several kinds of emotions according to their cultural traditions. Indian aesthetic theory of rasa divides emotional states up into eight rasas common to human beings: Sringara Rasa (pleasure or love), Hasya Rasa (laughter or humor), Karuna Rasa (sorrow or compassion), Raudra Rasa (anger), Vira Rasa (heroism or courage), Bhayanaka Rasa (terror), Bibhatsa Rasa (disgust), and Adbhuta Rasa(wonder or awesome). We could have some experiences like these in Shakespeare’s plays with all the complex human emotions shown in his dramatic world. Rasa theory deals with entire literary process: from the artist through the work of art to the reader or audience. Thus, Shakespeare’s tragedies could be read or watched in view of the theory, so that we could find the similarities and differences between ‘catharsis’ in Shakespeare and ‘santa rasa’ in Indian arts. Santa rasa is enlightenment like silence, peace or bliss: all rasas of eight emotions rise from and fall into santa rasa. As Shakespeare creates and destroys the world of his own dream in his drama, his tragedies go beyond the effect of catharsis and come near santa rasa. When Shakespeare creates dramatic illusions and he himself destroys them, he has at once the subjective and objective vision of the world. This is breaking the spell of our lives full of various kinds of emotions like eight rasas. Through the process of aesthetic experiences in Shakespeare’s drama, we could attain to enlightenment like santa rasa.

Shakespeare’s Drama in View of the Indian Aesthetic Theory of Rasa

Chang Ho Kim(김창호) 한국셰익스피어학회 2014 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.50 No.4

Human feelings have been categorized into several kinds of emotions according to their cultural traditions. Indian aesthetic theory of rasa divides emotional states up into eight rasas common to human beings: Sringara Rasa (pleasure or love), Hasya Rasa (laughter or humor), Karuna Rasa (sorrow or compassion), Raudra Rasa (anger), Vira Rasa (heroism or courage), Bhayanaka Rasa (terror), Bibhatsa Rasa (disgust), and Adbhuta Rasa(wonder or awesome). We could have some experiences like these in Shakespeare’s plays with all the complex human emotions shown in his dramatic world. Rasa theory deals with entire literary process: from the artist through the work of art to the reader or audience. Thus, Shakespeare’s tragedies could be read or watched in view of the theory, so that we could find the similarities and differences between ‘catharsis’ in Shakespeare and ‘santa rasa’ in Indian arts. Santa rasa is enlightenment like silence, peace or bliss: all rasas of eight emotions rise from and fall into santa rasa. As Shakespeare creates and destroys the world of his own dream in his drama, his tragedies go beyond the effect of catharsis and come near santa rasa. When Shakespeare creates dramatic illusions and he himself destroys them, he has at once the subjective and objective vision of the world. This is breaking the spell of our lives full of various kinds of emotions like eight rasas. Through the process of aesthetic experiences in Shakespeare’s drama, we could attain to enlightenment like santa rasa.

깡그라 회화(Kangra Paintings) 기따 고빈다(Gīta Govinda)에 묘사된 슈링가라 라사(Śṛṅgāra Rasa)와 신과 인간의 사랑에 대한 고찰

이춘호(Choonho Lee) 한국문화융합학회 2020 문화와 융합 Vol.42 No.8

12세기에 지어진 기따 고빈다는 크리슈나와 라다의 사랑 이야기이다. 지은이 자야 데바는 이 기따 고빈다에서 슈링가라 라사를 극대화 시켜 서술하였다. 세속적 사랑처럼 보이는 이 둘의 사랑은 신분을 초월한, 신을 향한 인간의 무조건적인 사랑으로 인식되면서 박띠 사상(bhaktism, 신애(信愛))의 근간이 되었다. 한편 기따 고빈다는 라자스탄이나 히마짤 쁘라데시에 존재했던 힌두 왕들의 후원을 받아 지방색을 담은 고유한 화풍으로 수차례 회화로 제작되었다. 여기서는 그 중에서 깡그라 지역에서 제작된 회화를 가지고 슈링가라 라사가 회화로는 어떠한 형태로 묘사되었는지를 살펴보았다. 이를 통해 신과 인간의 사랑이 지닌 속성을 살펴보고 왜 인도인들은 이것을 신과 인간이라는 형태로 승화시켰는지, 그 이유를 밝히고자 하였다. 지금까지 라사 이론과 기따 고빈다를 별개로 한 연구들은 많았으나 라사 이론이 회화에는 어떠한 식으로 묘사되었는가를 연구한 논문은 많지 않았다. 본 연구는 이러한 의미에서 추상적 라사 이론을 회화란 형식을 빌어 구체적으로 묘사된 것을 분석한 시도라 할 수 있다. 이를 위해 바라따가 저술한 나?x 샤스뜨라에서의 라사 개념과 종류를 살펴보고, 기따 고빈다 문헌과 이를 바탕으로 제작된 회화를 바탕으로 슈링가라 라사가 회화에서는 어떠한 방식으로 묘사되었는지를 살펴보고자 하였다. 라사는 인도미학의 정수이다. 그 중에서 슈링가라 라사는 모든 라사의 왕이자 최고봉이라 불리고 있다. 이처럼 라사는 연극, 무용, 문학 등 인도 문화 전반에 내재된 인도문화의 기본 정신이라 할 수 있다. Gīta Govinda composed in the 12th century is a love story between Krishna and Radha. Jayadeva, the writer, described the maximization of Śṛṅgāra Rasa in this Gīta Govinda. The love of the two which seems to be secular love became the basis of bhaktism, as it was recognized as an unconditional love of man toward a god beyond their social status. Meanwhile Gīta Govinda was produced in several paintings in a unique style with local colors under the auspices of the Hindu kings who existed in Rajasthan or Himachal Pradesh. Here, I have examined paintings made in the Kangra region and how they were described in the form of paintings by Śṛṅgāra Rasa. Through this, I looked at the nature of the love of God and humanity, and tried to find out why Indians sublimated it in the form of God and human. So far, there have been many studies separately from Rasa theory and Gīta Govina, but not many papers have studied how Rasa theory is described in painting. In this sense, this study can be considered as an attempt to show the theory of abstract Rasa in the form of painting. To do this, I tried to examine the concept and type of Rasa in Bharata s Nāṭya Śāstra, and look at how Śṛṅgāra Rasa was described in Gīta Govinda paintings based on Gīta Govinda literature. Rasa is the essence of Indian aesthetics and Śṛṅgāra Rasa is called as the king of all Rasa and the highest peak of Rasa. Like this, Rasa might be called the basic spirit of Indian culture including the theatre, dance, literature etc.

『나띠야 샤스뜨라』와 라사1 : 라사 그 이상의 의미

이재숙 부산대학교 인문학연구소 2009 코기토 Vol.- No.66

『나띠야 샤스뜨라』(B.C. 2세기경)는 종종 아리스토텔레스의 『시학(詩學)』과 비교된다. 『시학(詩學)』이 고대 그리스의 문학이론과 비극(연극)에 관한 고전이라면, 『나띠야 샤스뜨라』는 고대 인도의 문학이론과 연극 전통에 관한 최고의 고전이기 때문이다. 특히 『나띠야 샤스뜨라』는 제의적 관습, 무대 구조와 설치, 문학이론, 시작법(詩作法), 언어구사, 연기법, 의상, 분장, 춤, 음악, 이야기 구성, 배우와 다양한 성격의 등장인물들, 연출자, 관객의 역할 등 다양한 연극적 요소들에 관한 광범위한 논의를 펼치고 있을 뿐 아니라, 미학(美學)과 시학(詩學)의 전통 위에서 연극의 이론화, 체계화를 이루고 있다는 점에서 동양미학의 중요한 고전이라고 할 수 있다. 이와 같은 비중을 가진 『나띠야 샤스뜨라』에서 제시되는 미학적 의미단위인 ‘라사’의 개념은 고대인도의 정신세계를 잘 보여준다. 라사의 형이상학적 성격은 소위 베다정신과 상통하는 것이라고 할 수 있다. 눈에 보이는 세계 뒤에 그것들이 존재하도록 한 근원적인 힘이 있다는 베다정신은 모든 연극의 목적이 ‘라사’로 지칭되는 심미적 결과물이라는 『나띠야 샤스뜨라』의 정신을 이해하는데 중요한 열쇠가 되고 있기 때문이다. 특히 아비나와 굽따의 주석을 비롯한 대부분의 라사이론 계승자들은 모든 라사의 궁극적인 목적지가 “평화의 라사”라고 하였는데, 이는 인도 철학사 전반에서 나타나는 궁극적 지향점과 일맥상통하는 것이다. 이처럼 미학적 개념으로서의 ‘라사’는 예민한 차원의 느낌, 경험, 정신적 만족감, ‘완전한 자유’로 인한 지극한 존재론적 환희를 포함하기 때문에, 후대로 갈수록 단순히 하나의 이론이라기보다 중요한 철학적 주제로 확산되었다. Ancient Indian drama had been a synthetic art comprises a drama, music and dance and many aspects of performance. Indian dramatic tradition, namely, music, dance and the stories of heroes like Rāma of Rāmāyaṇa, the Great Epic of India, had spread far and wide. In the artistic culture of South Asia, we can easily confirm its influence. Because of this significance, Nāṭya Śāstra, an ancient work of dramatic theory, is often compared to Poetica(peri poiētikēs) of Aristoteles(B.C. 384~B.C. 322) of the West. According to Nāṭya Śāstra, the purpose of drama is the attainment of Rasa. A rasa(Sanskrit "rasa" lit. "juice" or "essence") denotes an essential mental state and is the dominant emotional theme of a work of art or the primary feeling that is evoked in the person that views, reads or hears such a work. The concept of rasa is fundamental to many forms of Indian art including dance, music, Indian musical theatre and literature, the treatment, interpretation, usage and actual performance of a particular rasa differs greatly between different styles and schools of abhinaya, and the huge regional differences even within one style. There are eight Rasas in the Nātyasāstra, namely, Rati(Love), Hasya(Mirth), Śoka(Sorrow), Krodha(Anger), Utsaha(Energy), Bhaya(Terror), Jugupsa(Disgust), Vismaya(Astonishment). Each Rasa is the relishable state of a permanent mood, which is called Sthāyī Bhāva. This development towards a relishable state results by the interplay on it of attendant emotional conditions which are called Vibhāvas, Anubhāvas and Sanchārī Bhāvas. Vibhāvas means the cause: it is of two kinds-Alambana, the personal or human object and substratum, and Uddipana, the excitants. Anubhāva, as the name signifies, means the effects following the rise of the emotion. Sanchārī Bhāvas are those crossing feelings which are ancillary to a permanent mood. Eight more emotional features are to be added, namely, the Sātvika Bhāvas. The concept of rasa have a thread of connection with Vedic Literature, to put it concretely Upanishads. The Upanishads are regarded as part of the Vedas and as such form part of the Hindu scriptures. They primarily discuss philosophy, meditation, and the nature of God; they form the core spiritual thought of Vedantic Hinduism. The Upanishads are known as Vedānta("the end / culmination of the Vedas"). The oldest, such as the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and Chāndogya Upanishads, date to the Brahmana period(roughly before the 7th century BCE). The middle-age Upanishads(4th~5th century BCE) had often used the word "rasa" as the representative of the fundamental cause of the world. Through the Vedic Literature, the word "rasa" has developed from "juice" or "essence" to the state of spiritual attainment of life, the stage of Ātman. This concept of rasa had been penetrated to the field of art and drama. Therefore, the theory of rasas still forms the aesthetic underpinning of all Indian classical dance and theatre.

Antidiabetic activity of an Ayurvedic Formulation Chaturmukha Rasa: A mechanism based study

Akansha Sharma,Raj K Tiwari,Vikas Sharma,Ravindra K Pandey,Shiv Shnakar Shukla 대한약침학회 2019 Journal of pharmacopuncture Vol.22 No.2

Objectives: The objective of this study was to evaluate antidiabetic activity of Chaturmukha rasa based on streptozotocin induced diabetes model, alpha amylase inhibitory activity, alpha Glucosidase inhibitory activity and inhibition of sucrase. Methods: Chaturmukha rasa was prepared as per Ayurvedic formulary. Antidiabetic activity was measured in experimentally streptozotocin induced rats. The dose was taken as 45 mg/kg, i.p. The antidiabetic activity of Chaturmukha rasa was compared Triphala Kwatha, a marketed formulation. Further In vitro ά- Amylase Inhibitory Assay, In vitro salivary amylase Inhibitory Assay, In vitro α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Assay and In vitro Sucrase Inhibitory Assay was performed with respect to Chaturmukha rasa. The IC50 value was calculated for all the above activity. Results: Streptozotocin with Acarbose showed significant decrease in blood glucose level whereas streptozo-tocin with Triphala kwatha showed more decrease in blood glucose level than Streptozotocin with Acarbose. The combination of Streptozotocin + Triphala kwatha + Chaturmukha rasa showed a significant decrease in blood glucose level on 21st day. In vitro ά- Amylase Inhibitory Assay the Chaturmukha rasa showed IC50 value 495.94 μl when compared with Acarbose 427.33 μl, respectively. In the α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Assay Chaturmukha rasa showed IC50 value 70.93 μl when compared with Acarbose 102.28 μl, respectively. In vitro Sucrase Inhibitory Assay Chaturmukha rasa showed IC50 value 415.4 μl when compared with Acarbose 371.43 μl, respectively. Conclusion: This study supports that Chaturmukha rasa may inhibit diabetes by inhibition of salivary amylase or alpha Glucosidase or sucrase. This may be the mechanism by which Chaturmukha rasa inhibits diabetes. Further this study supports the usage of Chaturmukha rasa for the management of diabetes.

Antidiabetic Activity of an Ayurvedic Formulation Chaturmukha Rasa: A Mechanism Based Study

Sharma, Akansha,Tiwari, Raj K,Sharma, Vikas,Pandey, Ravindra K,Shukla, Shiv Shnakar KOREAN PHARMACOPUNCTURE INSTITUTE 2019 Journal of pharmacopuncture Vol.22 No.2

Objectives: The objective of this study was to evaluate antidiabetic activity of Chaturmukha rasa based on streptozotocin induced diabetes model, alpha amylase inhibitory activity, alpha Glucosidase inhibitory activity and inhibition of sucrase. Methods: Chaturmukha rasa was prepared as per Ayurvedic formulary. Antidiabetic activity was measured in experimentally streptozotocin induced rats. The dose was taken as 45 mg/kg, i.p. The antidiabetic activity of Chaturmukha rasa was compared Triphala Kwatha, a marketed formulation. Further In vitro $\acute{\alpha}$- Amylase Inhibitory Assay, In vitro salivary amylase Inhibitory Assay, In vitro ${\alpha}-Glucosidase$ Inhibitory Assay and In vitro Sucrase Inhibitory Assay was performed with respect to Chaturmukha rasa. The IC50 value was calculated for all the above activity. Results: Streptozotocin with Acarbose showed significant decrease in blood glucose level whereas streptozotocin with Triphala kwatha showed more decrease in blood glucose level than Streptozotocin with Acarbose. The combination of Streptozotocin + Triphala kwatha + Chaturmukha rasa showed a significant decrease in blood glucose level on 21st day. In vitro $\acute{\alpha}$- Amylase Inhibitory Assay the Chaturmukha rasa showed IC50 value $495.94{\mu}l$ when compared with Acarbose $427.33{\mu}l$, respectively. In the ${\alpha}-Glucosidase$ Inhibitory Assay Chaturmukha rasa showed IC50 value $70.93{\mu}l$ when compared with Acarbose $102.28{\mu}l$, respectively. In vitro Sucrase Inhibitory Assay Chaturmukha rasa showed IC50 value $415.4{\mu}l$ when compared with Acarbose $371.43{\mu}l$, respectively. Conclusion: This study supports that Chaturmukha rasa may inhibit diabetes by inhibition of salivary amylase or alpha Glucosidase or sucrase. This may be the mechanism by which Chaturmukha rasa inhibits diabetes. Further this study supports the usage of Chaturmukha rasa for the management of diabetes.

인도 마살라 영화의 특징 분석

민병록(Min Byung Lock) 한국영화학회 2008 영화연구 Vol.0 No.37

In present study, features of the motion picture Masala is analyzed through a reading of Dancing Muthu. First, the foundation for Masala as a movie can be found within the film history of Tamil, Southern India. The first Indian talkie movie is Alam Ara of Bombay, directed by Ardeshir Irani. In the text of this movie, 10 songs are inserted in the Hindi language, reenforced by copious dancing. This is an influence by the traditional South Indian theatre, in which acting, music, and dance are all combined into one. Indian films which have developed from traditional Indian theatres have become musicals. Moreover, this film is advertised as featuring 'everyone talking, singing, and dancing,' which is nothing other than the most important characteristic in modern Indian films. The reason for its success lies in its richness of contents, featuring singing, dancing, and many popular songs as a part of everyday lives in the traditional Indian folk culture, which was able to absorb even the audience from other language areas. Second, the principles for features of traditional theatre in India is found in Natya Shastra (a text for dance, theatre, and music). This book is said to have been written by guru Barata and is acclaimed as the best commentary on Indian Arts known today. In fact, traditional dancing in India, which originates from Southern India, is called Bharata Natyam, named after the title of this book and its author. Natya Shastra has been compiled around 2 A D and is often nicknamed the "Fifth Veda." The book teaches that all types of art were created by God and were first used for God's own enjoyment. But then they were handed down to entertain all mankind, including the lowly Sudra, The Sudras were even permitted to dance, who were normally forbidden to even hear or recite Veda literature. This allowed them to approach God through their bodily gestures and devotional singing. Natya designates both 'dance' and 'theatre' in Sanskrit language. In fact, most traditional Indian classical dancing employ elaborate 'hand gestures' and 'body movements' as if they would use language, This is a highly stylized theatrical representation, designed to deliver traditional epic tales. Among such bodily language, Natya Shastra provides 36 detailed instructions for moving one's eyes, eye-lids, and brows, and no less than 22 types of descriptions for head and neck postures. With time these have haven been expanded into more than several hundred types. This implies that acquiring skills in traditional Indian dancing requires many years of practice. Like in western ballet, many young and talented Indians today are continuously willing to learn their traditional dance. These young people usually have jobs related to singing, dancing, and acting, and are in fact the very providers of entertainment for the entire nation. They would usually perform in the middle of the night, out in the fields and some of the exceptionally accomplished men and women would be allowed to perform in court. Third, the techniques for emotional and facial expression have roots in the numerous Rasas and Bhavas found in Indian arts tradition. Natya Shastra lists four basic rasas; love, heroism, passion, and despise. There are than further divided into 9 important types of rasas; love, courage, joy, hate, rage, compassion, fear, alarm, and spiritual peace. Each rasa incorporates a number of Bhavas. A Bhava is expressed in various ways according to the time of day, state of health, climate, and other factors in life. The number of Bhavas in a rasa may be as little as three to as many as 49. Meena, who took the role of Ganga in the film, states in an interview that an Indian actor can not perform the multiple facial expressions required in a movie without acquiring fundamental skills in traditional rasas. Fourth is class distinction by the Caste system. According to Caste, Brahman are poets and priests, Kshatrya, the royal family, Bysha, the merchant

위스와나타의 시론(詩論)

임근동 한국외국어대학교 외국문학연구소 2008 외국문학연구 Vol.- No.29

위스와나타는 산스크리트 문학이론서 가운데 비교적 후대의 작품에 속하는 자신의 저서 『싸히뜨야다르빠나』에서 이전의 산스크리트 문학이론서들의 내용을 바탕으로 자신의 시론을 전개한다. 그에 의하면 시는 의도를 지닌 것이며, 그 의도는 순수미학적인 것이 아니라 문학의 교시적인 기능에 중점을 둔 것이다. 아울러 시는 인생의 목표를 달성하게 하는 효용성을 가진다. 위스와나타에 따르면 “라싸를 영혼으로 지닌 문장이 시이다.” 라싸는 진성(眞性)이 수승하므로 말미암아 구분이 없고, 스스로 빛나며, 참 기쁨이며 순수의식인 것, 그리고 다른 인식 대상과는 전혀 접촉이 없는, 브라흐마를 맛봄과 같은 것이다. 브라흐마는 현상의 세계로 아직 드러나지 않은 존재이기에 있음이라고도 그리고 없음이라고도 말할 수 없는 것이다. 따라서 브라흐마를 맛봄과 친형제인 라싸는 시(是)와 비(非)를 넘어선 존재의 본질을 자기 자신의 본질로 경험하는 것이다. 이러한 라싸는 문장의 의미를 통해 경험된다. 문장의 의미는 위스와나타에 의하면 ‘아비다’라는 문장과 낱말의 힘에 의해 나타나는 기본적 의미인 ‘와쯔야’, ‘라끄샤나’라는 힘에 의해 나타나는 대유적 의미인 ‘라끄스야’, 그리고 ‘브얀자나’라는 힘에 의해 나타나는 암시적 의미인 ‘브양그야’ 이렇게 세 가지의 의미들이 존재한다. 이세 가지 의미들 가운데 ‘브얀자나’라는 힘에 의해 나타나는 암시적 의미인 ‘브양그야’에 의해 라싸가 경험된다. 이렇게 문장의 의미를 통해 자신의 본질로 경험되는 라싸에는 인간의 여러 감정들 가운데 오로지 하나의 감정만이 상존감정으로 존재하기에 라싸의 경험은 해탈의 전단계인 유현삼매(有顯三昧)에 해당된다. 따라서 진성이 수승하여 생겨나는 라싸를 영혼으로 하는 문장인 시를 창작하거나 감상한다는 것은 위스와나타의 시론에 따르면 해탈에 이르는 지름길이 된다. In Sāhityadarpaṇa that is considered as a theoretical book on Sanskrit literature of relatively later times, Viśvanātha expounds his own poetics on the basis of the earlier theoretical books on Sanskrit literature. According to him, poetry is originated from a certain type of intention, which is in nature not purely aesthetic, but rather based on the revelatory-doctrinal function of the literature. Moreover, poetry has the function of helping to achieve the goal of our lives. Viśvanātha says, “Poetry is nothing other than the sentences of which soul is rasa.” He is of the view that rasa being foremost of the nature of sattvaguṇa is beyond distinction, self-luminous, of bliss and pure consciousness, and a certain direct experience of Brahma that is separate from the cognitive objects of ‘otherness’. Brahma, being prior to the phenomenal manifestation, is beyond the description as being or non-being. Therefore, rasa, the ‘real brother’ of the direct experience of Brahma, is nothing but the experience of the essence of phenomenal beings that is beyond the dichotomy of being and non-being, as its own essence. Rasa as such can be experienced in the form of meaning of the sentences. Meaning of the sentences is, in Viśvanātha, of the three kinds, namely vācya, lakṣya, and vyaṃgya. Vācya is the kind of meaning that is caused by abhidhā, lakṣya by lakṣṇā, and vyaṃgya by vyañjanā. Among these three rasa can be experienced through the power of vyaṃgya, when the vyañjanā gives rise to the vyaṃgya. Rasa of which essence is to be approached through the meaning of sentences is characterized solely by the feeling of sattvaguṇa, hence the experience of rasa is regarded as the samprajñātasamādhi that is closest to the salvation. In conclusion, it can be inferred that the creation as well as the appreciation of the poetry of which soul is but rasa that is originated from the elevated sattvaguṇa be the right way to the salvation.

라사 이론을 통해서 살펴보는인도 미학의 미 개념

김은경 ( Eun Kyung Kim ) 한국미학회 2015 美學 Vol.81 No.1

미의 주관주의와 객관주의를 통합하고자 했던 인도 미학은 미적 즐거움과 아름다움을 같은 것으로 보았다. 인도 미학은 인간 감정에 대한 깊은 이해를 바탕으로 하고 있으며 라사는 일상의 감정이 아닌 순화된 감정이다. 그것은 스타이바바라고 하는 기본 감정이 예술적인 자극을 통해 화학적 변화를 일으킨 감정이다. 본 논문은 라사 이론을 통해서 인도 미학에서 말하는 미의 개념을 이해하고자 하는 것을 목표로 하고 있다. 바라따의 『나띠야 샤스뜨라』는 라사에 대해서 논한 최초의 저서이다. 라사 이론은 꾸준히 이어오면서 9세기와 11세기 사이에 활동했던 아난다바르다나, 바따나야까, 아비나바굽따로 인해 비약적인 발전을 이룬다. 사흐리다야는 예술작품에 숨겨져 있는 미를 인식해서 라사를 불러일으킬 수 있는 훈련된 감상자를 말하며 아난다바르다나 이 후 인도 미학 논의의 중심에 있었다. 예술작품은 바로 이러한 사흐리다야를 통해 현재의 감정으로 되살아난다. 미는 영원을 지향하는 표시이고 사흐리다야는 시공을 초월해서 라사를 통해 미를 실현시킨다. Beauty finds its exterior expression in art. Bliss is the inner feeling that beauty evokes in the connoisseur. In the tradition of Indian aesthetics, bliss and beauty are regarded as two aspects of the same thing. The artist aims at revealing a sense of beauty in the creation of an object of art; the contemplation of this object ideally evokes bliss in the observer. Indian aesthetics is based on a deep understanding of human emotion. Rasa is not something that is experienced in our quotidian existence. It is the result of conversion of basic emotions through art experiences. Bharata first introduced the rasa theory in his ‘Natya Sastra’; the concept is further developed by the great aestheticians, anandavardhana, Bhattanayaka and Abhinavagupta during the 9th to the 11th century. anandavardhana introduces sahrdaya, the connoisseur or discerning observer, who becomes central to the appreciation of art. Sahrdaya is a person who experiences rasa, pure bliss, the essence of delight, in the observation of art. A work of art can be eternal if its beauty arouses rasa in the heart of sahrdaya. In this impermanent world, beauty is a symbol of the eternal, and sahrdaya is the means to realize that through the experience of rasa.

깔리다싸(Kālidāsa)의 서정시에 나타난 비유 고찰_인도철학적인 의미를 중심으로

임근동 인도철학회 2010 印度哲學 Vol.0 No.28

There are two lyrical poems written by Kālidāsa, namely Meghadūtam and Ṛtusaṁhāram. Among these, Meghadūtam shows Indian Weltanschauung(world view) through the metaphor that everything is one. On the other hand, Ṛtusaṁhāram expresses the essence of Indian Mysticism through the beauty of season-changing expressed by metaphors that ānanda equals to the spirituality and its ultimatum which were sublated from the profane to the sacred dialectically. The rasa guarantees these characters through the comparison like simile and metaphor, or the combined weaving of simile and metaphor by personification of the nature. The personification comes up by the metaphor, and the metaphor was strengthen by combined weaving of simile and metaphor. On the base of new meaning of the words which were made through newly strengthen metaphor, methods were ready to extract Śṛṁgārarasa. Śṛṁgārarasa is the best among the rasas. Rasa occurs to the person who watches art objects when sattvaguṇa presses rajoguṇa and tamoguṇa and ascends. So sattvaguṇa of the person who can feel rasa which was strengthened through the metaphor reflected on Kālidāsa's lyrical poems ascends. That is to say, he reaches nirbījasamādhi. So we get to know the metaphors in Kālidāsa's lyrical poems is nothing but mechanisms which are nirvana-oriented ultimately. If we borrow the words of Bhagavadgītā, it means maximum experience of Brahma which is the core of all beings and beyond the moral judgement like right or wrong through the appreciation of literatures. Like this, the fact that the metaphors in Kālidāsa's lyrical poems has orientation to mokṣa shows it is very much like general trends of Indian philosophy. 깔리다싸의 서정시는 메가두땀과 리뚜쌍하람 두 편이 현존한다. 이들 가운데 메가두땀은 비유를 통해 일체가 하나라는 인도적인 세계관을 표현하며, 리뚜쌍하람은 비유에 의한 계절미를 통해 속(俗)에서 성(聖)으로 변증적으로 지양되는 영성과 궁극은 환희라는 인도적 신비사상의 핵심을 드러낸다. 깔리다싸의 이 두 편의 서정시가 가진 이러한 특징은 직유와 은유라는 비유를 통해, 또는 직유와 은유라는 비유의 교직(交織)을 통해 자연물을 의인화함으로써 형성되는 사랑의 라싸에 의해 보장된다. 사랑의 라싸는 라싸 가운데 최고의 라싸이다. 라싸는 진성이 염성과 암성을 누르고 수승하게 되는 상태에서 작품을 감상하는 사람에게 형성되는 것이다. 따라서 깔리다싸의 서정시에 나타난 비유에 의해 강화된 라싸를 작품 감상을 통해 느끼는 사람은 진성이 수승한 상태가 된다. 즉, 요가철학적인 관점에서 보면 무종삼매의 상태에 도달한다. 따라서 깔리다싸의 서정시에 나타나는 비유는 궁극적으로 해탈을 지향하기 위한 기제임을 알 수 있다. 바가바드기타의 관점에서 보자면 이것은 문학작품의 감상을 통해 궁극적으로 시(是)와 비(非)를 넘어선 존재의 본질을 자기 자신의 본질로 최대한 경험함으로써 요가철학적인 관점과 마찬가지로 지상의 양식이 천상의 양식이 되는 해탈의 길로 통하게 하는 것이다. 이처럼 깔리다싸의 서정시에 나타나는 비유는 해탈을 지향한다는 인도철학적인 의미를 가진다.