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근대 산동(山東) 지역 해방(海防) 정책과 해양기지의 건설 -위해(威海)와 교주만(膠州灣) 기지건설을 중심으로-
김형열 ( Kim Hyong Yol ) 중국사학회 2019 中國史硏究 Vol.0 No.123
The “Sea Defense” policy taken by the Qing dynasty shows China’s perception of the world at that time, regardless of its military strategy. Despite his excellent scientific technique on various fields of the country, he eventually fell into a well-worn frog due largely to the lack of a national-level strategy to actively respond to the outside world. Of course, it is true that the fact that China has never experienced a large-scale invasion from the sea or that the threat of the frontier has always started in the north has lowered the level of the sea defense and made it a strategic military system centered on land power. However, the fact that China, which had the largest battleship in the world until the Ming dynasty, still possessed naval power at the level of the Middle Ages when the Opium War broke out, and that he tried to maintain the system of the heavenly dynasty of China until the second Opium war could indicate that chinese intellectuals at that time still had a serious problem on their perception of outside world. Moreover, like the overlapping and confusion shown by fulfilling chinese westernized reform whose aim was consolidating the governance structure of the Qing Dynasty, the conditions of selecting the naval base in the Qing Dynasty indicated the closed and shortsighted nature of chinese westernized reform. In this paper, we will look at what changes took place in the sea defense policy after the First Opium War, focusing on the Shandong region, and then on how the construction of sea defense led by Li Hong-zhang during the chinese westernized reform. In addition, we will figure out how Germany, which wanted to build a colony with a naval base in East Asia, approached China through their maritime policies and explore how the process of colonizing the Kyoju Bay by Germany has progressed.
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김형열 ( Kim Hyong-yol ) 대구사학회 2018 대구사학 Vol.131 No.-
In a word, Li Da-zhao's idea of harmony is a harmonious view of the world and a view of life, in which two phenomena and values, which are mutually contradictory and conflicting, can be of one accord and be coexisting. Li Da-zhao saw that everything in the universe is rotating. He thought that prosperity and decline, life and death, destruction and creation, health and decay, old and young, and birth and death both of which were necessary and inevitable were repeated, and in the end, were different appearances of the same things. What should have created new China, new ideas and new institutions should have been practically young, new, dynamic, and energetic society, not just seemingly new and young society. Li Da-zhao's constructive, practical view of the universe and view of the world served to induce the political awakening and artificial efforts of intellectuals to create a new China. By doing so, the people have been forced to demand democracy as a substitute for monarchism and to wipe out the despotism, an element of the old tradition of china that has hindered the revival of young China. Such a conflicting and coexisting, contradictory and changeable view of the world, which is known as the “Youth” universe view, was, in other words, harmonious ideas. This idea of harmony was revealed in several writings published by Li Da-zhao in New Culture Movement era to shape his political and social theory, and later determined the character of political campaign he sought to overcome the political and social contradictions. In Li Da-zhao's whole system of thought, it is too difficult to dismiss the ideological influence so that we can’t look his idea of harmony as an immature philosophical theory or a bourgeois deviation before he became a Marxist. The concept of youth, which was very important in his ideas and writings, could not only mean the ideal future that the old and sick China had to pulled out of the current situation and wanted to achieve. It was another character and appearance china already had at that time. Li Da-zhao did not only want to give the Chinese at the time the ideal value of regeneration and rebirth, but to find the principles and power to create youth china, or new china, in a real society. This idea of harmony between confrontation and coexistence could develop into a trend to accept the matter along with the spirit as a key element in operation of universe from the phase of emphasis on non-materialistic factors. Then, the spiritualism that Li Da-zhao showed in embracing Marxism, in other words, would be an evidence that he has been embraced materialism in a system of idealistic thought.
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논문(論文) : 근대(近代) 산동(山東) 자호(字號)의 경영 성격과 지역적 특성 -장구(章丘) 맹가(孟家) "상(祥)"자호(字號) 경영을 중심으로-
김형열 ( Hyong Yol Kim ) 중국사학회 2015 中國史硏究 Vol.94 No.-
Meng family members were landlords and merchants who owned massive lands and ran shops by capital from land-rent profits in Zhangqiu district of Shandong province through Qing dynasty and modern period. They ran shops named with ‘Xiang’ in Jinan, Qingdao, Yantai, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai. The shops named with ‘Xiang’ that Meng family ran were all over the trade area of open-port and accumulated gigantic fund in late Qing and early Republic of China. Thus Meng family members changed from landowner who owned massive lands into capitalist who owned capital in large quantities. The Meng family who ran the shops named with ‘Xiang’ had two local characteristics in general compared with the management character of the other traditional shops in those days. First, they were managing landowners based on land-rent and expanded business through accumulated fund from land exploitation, then they bought lands using profits from business again. Once they had massive capital and extended shops they ran, they changed from landlords into capitalists. Second, their business were affected by Confucius culture based on traditional local culture of Shandong. It was absolute that the Confucius culture of Qi-Lu area affected the management character of Shandong merchants. The Qi culture that was mercantilistic pragmatism and the Lu culture that was moral courtesy were upheld by Shandong merchants and affected their characteristic, life and management ideology. This cultural tradition was applied to the management method of the traditional shop, Ruifuxiang.
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김형열(Kim Hyong-Yol) 부산경남사학회 2008 역사와 경계 Vol.67 No.-
With historical viewpoint, Shandong has unique cultural tradition. "Qi and Lu" were the feudal nations of "Spring and Autumn Period of Zhou dynasty". Because those are located in Shandong province, "Qi-Lu" became the representative of Shandong. Qi-culture based on mercantilism and Lu-culture based on Confucianism fused into one, that was "the culture of Qi-Lu". "The culture of Qi-Lu" was soon developed to special local culture of Shandong. This tradition of "Qi-Lu culture" created the unique cultural characters and contents, made traditional education changed, and also affected commercial development. "The traditional culture of Shandong" were mental, cultural factors for economical and commercial development of Shandong province. On the other hand, this traditional education system actually prevented society from developing toward modernization. In 1901, late period of Qing dynasty, the government of Qing reformed a system of education. This policy was reflected in Jinan, Shandong. Modern education system and curriculum were started in Shandong. The curriculum of school education consisted of something more practical, natural science-centered subjects. So, the role of school got changed not to produce government officials but to train suitable men of ability. In 1904, "Marketplace of a trade port" was built in Jinan. After that, Jinan began to build modern facilities, western style buildings, and new towns. It meaned inflow of Western civilization to Jinan. People in Jinan took interests in civilized facilities, became curious about Western things, and sometimes felt culture shock. It finally made education system advanced. "Marketplace of a trade port" finally functioned as economical and cultural hub. If city is developed externally and materially, people of that city also get changed mentally and culturally. Cultural changes affect city's feature. Therefore, "the changes of educational environment" indicate how fast the city is developed, and it affects the direction of the development.
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김형열(Kim Hyong-Yol)(金亨洌) 대한중국학회 2019 중국학 Vol.68 No.-
The greatest characteristic of Mao Zedong‘s cultural thought could be that it was in the public nature centered around the people. Mao Zedong presented the culture that would educate farmers, laborers and soldiers and would be consumed by them as a true culture that would replace the old culture. As such, the public character in cultural contents that Mao Zedong‘s cultural thought presented is characteristic of the Chinese Communist revolution that he successfully led. In particular, recognizing the peasants as the subject of the revolution and accomplishing the task of the Communist revolution as the national revolution through the peasants was a unique characteristic of China‘s proletarian revolution that was a departure from the orthodox doctrines of Marxism and Leninism. The thought of people s culture, established and developed by Mao Zedong in Yan‘an period, was very specific and clear, and the people or crowds he meant was the widespread existence of peasants, workers and soldiers, and the contents of the cultural policy were the construction of culture for farmers and workers and soldiers, or cultural popularization. Mao Zedong thought that China‘s revolution was actually a peasant revolution, and that New Democracy politics was what gave real peasants power. Thus, the new democracy was peasant revolutionism, and the people‘s culture was to advocate peasant culture. 마오쩌둥 문화사상의 가장 큰 특징은 인민을 중심으로 하는 대중성에 있다고 할 수 있었다. 마오쩌둥의 문화사상에서 드러나는 문화 주체와 내용에 있어서의 인민성 또는 대중성은 그가 성공적으로 이끌었던 중국 공산혁명의 성격을 나타내어 주는 특징이기도 하다. 특히 혁명의 주체로서 농민을 자각하고 농민을 통한 민족혁명으로써 공산혁명의 임무를 완수해 낸 것은 마르크스·레닌주의의 정통적 교의에서 벗어난 것으로서 중국 프롤레타리아 혁명의 독특한 성격으로 자리매김할 수 있었다. 옌안 시기 마오쩌둥이 정립하고 발전한 민중문화관은 매우 구체적이고 명확한 것으로 그가 의미한 인민 또는 군중은 곧 광범위하게 존재하는 농민과 노동자 및 병사를 의미하는 것이었고 문화 정책의 내용은 곧 농민과 노동자 및 병사를 위한 문화의 건설, 즉 문화 대중화였다.
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