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심호성 한국몽골학회 2021 몽골학 Vol.- No.65
This article revisits the conventional theory concerning state formation on the steppe by reexamining the historical relationships between the Oirad nomads and Central Asian oasis people. Conventional wisdom has considered that steppe nomads needed to depend on Central Asian oasis people to build a state because nomads lacked a stable economic basis and sophisticated means of statecraft. According to this view, nomads had to occupy at least some of Central Asian oases before they attempted to build a state on the steppe. A close reading of primary sources, however, reveals that the rise of the Oirad states actually predated the Oirad expansion to the Central Asian oasis region. From this discovery, this article argues that steppe nomads did not necessarily rely on the settled people of Central Asian oases to construct their states. Thus, in terms of state formation on the steppe, internal dynamics of steppe politics, economy, and society were more crucial than external factors, such as the relationship with neighboring sedentary regions.
심호성 중앙아시아학회 2022 中央아시아硏究 Vol.27 No.2
This article examines the development of the Central Secretariat (zhongshu sheng; 中書省) and Branch Secretariats (xingsheng; 行省) in the early Mongol Empire. Before Chinggis Khan proclaimed the establishment of the Mongol Empire in 1206, the Mongols had already maintained a system of the central government. After occupying parts of North China and Central Asia, the Mongol imperial court appointed officials called “daruġa or daruġači” to many towns to rule the newly conquered agrarian and urban regions. Ögedei Khan employed a ruling system and human resources very similar to those of Chinggis Khan to control North China and Central Asia. During Ögedei’s reign, various official titles rendered in a Chinese style in Chinese sources—for example, zhongshu ling (中書令), zuo chengxiang (左丞相), and you chengxiang (右丞相)—were, in fact, Chinese translations of the Mongolian word “daruġa/daruġači.” In addition, the Central Secretariat installed during Ögedei’s expedition against the Jin Empire in 1231 was created to facilitate and manage the Mongol campaign in North China efficiently, serving as an office in which daruġačis attended and worked. Later, Güyük Khan’s and Möngke Khan’s local administration systems inherited those of Chinggis Khan and Ögedei Khan. Just like the Central Secretariat during Ögedei’s time, xing shangshusheng (行尙書省)—the representative local administrative apparatus during Möngke’s reign—was a Chinese rendition of imperial regional offices where officials like daruġači worked, rather than a Chinese-style institution modeled upon the traditional political system of China. During and after the Qubilai era, the Mongols continued to recognize the Central Secretariat and Branch Secretariats as imperial offices installed in major towns in China, in which high officials worked on behalf of Great Khans. In sum, the Branch Secretariats and local administrative system of the Mongol-Yuan Empire were derived more from the Mongol tradition of local administration than from the Chinese institutions.
17~18세기 두르부드의 盛衰와 중앙아시아초원의 통치체제 변동
심호성(Shim, Hosung) 역사학회 2021 역사학보 Vol.- No.250
This article demonstrates how the state ruling system transformed in the early modern Central Asian steppe by scrutinizing the political history of the Dörböds in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the early period of the Four Oirad Confederation, Dalai Taishi─the head prince of the Dörböd aristocratic house and the lord of the Dörböd principality─was a core constituent of the Four Oirad Confederation, maintaining a political and military alliance with his fellow Oirad princes. Following the death of Dalai Taishi, the Dörböd house and its principality continued to function as a principal member of the Four Oirad Confederation despite the rise of two factions within the royal family. Thus, during the period of the Four Oirad Confederation, the Dörböd house and principality retained independent power as well as a huge domain in today’s northern Kazakh steppe. In the late seventeenth century, the Zunghar principality gained ascendancy and developed into an empire in the Central Asian steppe. With the dramatic rise of Zunghar power and influence, the Dörböd house lost its previous status as an independent ruler of the Dörböd principality and an equal ally of Zunghar princes, being demoted to subordinate nobles of the Zunghar supreme ruler. This transition of the Dörböd house’s political status clarifies that the state ruling system of the early modern Central Asian steppe changed from a decentralized confederated state system based on the Oirad aristocracy into a centralized imperial system based on the Zunghar autocracy.