영남대동법 시행 초기 지방재정의 개편과 그 성격

문광균(Moon, Kwang-Kyun) 한국사연구회 2013 한국사연구 Vol.161 No.-

The Yeongnam Daedong Law was implemented in the 4th year of the reign of King Sukjong(1678), which was 27 years after the implementation of the Hoseo Daedong Law. Yeongnam Daedong Samok, which provides the enforcement rules of the Yeongnam Daedong Law, was drafted based on the Jeonnamdo Daedong Samok. Although there is a slight difference between the two due to geographical and economical differences, the basic operative framework was the same. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of the Daedong laws and provincial finances through the analysis of the Yeongnam Daedong Samok, which provided the enforcement rules for the Yeongnam Daedong Law, and the Chubyeong Tongjeolmok and Bondojeolmok, which were created to modify and supplement the Yeongnam Daedong Samok. The application of the Daedong Laws expanded to Gyeongsangdo while imposing the "for the people" philosophy which was a financial management principle. As the government directly managed the right to administer the provincial finances, it reduced the taxes imposed on the people as well as increased the level of transparency in the nation"s financial operations. Also, it increased the amount of taxes collected and the efficiency of its operations by combining various taxes existing within Gyeongsangdo into a Daedong tax called Jeochimi. It also later served as an important momentum in organizing the logistics system. However, various issues that were exposed during the expansion of the Daedong Law such as the failure to preserve provincial finances, inadequate response measures with respect to sundry services and approval of the exclusivity in exchanging grains germinated later difficulties in the provincial finances.

17∼18세기 경상감영 환곡의 운영 추이

문광균(Moon, Kwang-Kyun) 한국사연구회 2016 한국사연구 Vol.- No.174

폴리프로필렌 섬유를 혼입한 시멘트 매트릭스의 열응력 평가

문광균 ( Moon Kwang Kyun ),홍기남 ( Hong Ki Nam ) 한국구조물진단유지관리공학회 2017 한국구조물진단유지관리공학회 학술발표대회 논문집 Vol.21 No.2

In this paper, internal thermal stresses of the cementitious matrix were evaluated by incorporating polypropylene fibers. By using the temperature heating method specified in KS F 2257-1, the temperatures by a depth were measured. Thermal stress was calculated based on Kodur's thermal stress formula. Different thermal stress behaviors were observed depending on amount of PP fiber. Thas, it will become fundamental data to analyze the thermal stresses behavior of structure members subjected to higher temperature.

영남대동법 시행 이후 대동세 배분방식의 변화와 儲置米 운영

문광균(Moon, Kwang-Kyun) 역사학회 2015 역사학보 Vol.0 No.225

Due to the daedong law, government provided jeochimi to each region and area so as to control local finance unilaterally. Jachimi of Gyeongsang-do was originally distributed through the ‘chunchubunbong(春秋分捧)’, but it was changed to ‘hapbong(合捧)’ in the 9th year of Sookjong(1683). As a result, Sunhyechung collected all of daedong tax every year and distributed sangnapmi and jeochimi. However, from the first-half of the 18th century, the method of daedong tax budget organization was changed due to the change of Sunhyechung’s profit organization. After the Gyeongjayangjeon, Actual payment was continuously reduced, so incomes of daedong tax were reduced. Unlike the situation, public material price which should be paid as sangnapmi was continuously increaed. In here, Gyunyuk law fulfilled in the middle stage of the 18th century and increase of anti-Japan diplomatic costs of dongrae department became reasons for rapid reduction of jeochimi. As a result, jeochimi which was about 60% of daedong tax in the early stage of daedong law’s execution was reduced to less than 40% in the middle stage of the 18th century. Finally, general problem of jeochimi operation was solved when byulchimi(別置米) was established in the early stage of the 19th century. In other words, government intended to endure the problem caused by insufficient joechimi through the hwangok of byulchimi.

17~18세기 경상도 세곡운송체계의 변화와 삼조창(三漕倉)의 설치

문광균 ( Kwang Kyun Moon ) 성균관대학교 대동문화연구원 2014 大東文化硏究 Vol.86 No.-

본고는 조선후기 경상도 세곡운송체계의 변화 과정을 이해하고, 3조창 설치에 투영된 정부의 의도를 파악하여 조선후기 조운제의 위상을 규명하는 데 목적을 두었다. 조운제는 조선이 건국된 이후 잦은 변동을 겪었지만, 19세기 후반까지 지속되었다. 이는 왕조정부가 국가재정과 직결되는 세곡운송에 직접 개입하여 관리, 통제하려고 한의도가 관철되고 있었음을 의미한다. 경상도의 조운제는 조선전기 태종 연간 조운선의 해난사고로 폐지되었으나 17세 기 광해군대 들어서면서 재개되었다. 처음에는 조운제가 복구되지 못하고, 경강선을 이용한 ‘私船賃運’체제로 운영되었다. 경강선인의 운수업은 숙종 4년(1678) 영남대 동법을 계기로 더욱 확대되었다. 그러나 경강선인의 운수업은 정부가 허용한 범주 내에서 이루어졌고, 이 범주내에서도 정부는 최소한의 개입과 통제를 통하여 세곡운 송의 안전에 만전을 기하고 있었다. 호조, 선혜청, 훈련도감 등 중앙 기관의 船案에 등록한 경강선에 한하여 운송권을 부여한 점, 差使員을 경강선에 동승시켜 부정행 위를 근절하고 해난사고를 방지한 점, 정부가 경강선의 선가를 구체적으로 책정하여 부당한 선가 징수를 원천적으로 차단하고 있는 점 등이 그 대표적인 예라고 할 수 있다. 경강선인은 정부의 규제 아래에서 많은 이익을 남기기가 어려워지자 상한선 이상으로 세곡을 적재하거나 私物 적재하여 이익 추구를 꾀하고 있었다. 그 결과 발선기 일을 넘기거나 과적을 하는 일이 다반사였고, 이는 결국 영조 4년(1728)과 영조 7 년(1731) 대형 해난사고로 나타났다. 정부는 해난사고 이후 경강선인의 운수업을 억제하고자 地土船을 도입하여 경강선을 대체하고자 했다. 「造船節目」은 이러한 상황에서 반포된 법령이었다. 그러나 조선절목이 반포되었음에도 불구하고 지토선 의 관리와 운영이 부실하자, 경강선인은 세곡운송에 주도적으로 계속 참여할 수 있었다. 그러나 경강선인의 故敗, 和水, 偸食 등의 부정행위는 국가재정을 감소시키 는 한편 민의 부세 부담을 가중시키는 결과를 가져왔다. 결국 정부는 경강선인의 운수업을 전면적으로 차단하고자 영조 36년(1760)과 영 조 41년(1765) 두 차례에 걸쳐 진주, 창원, 밀양에 각각 가산창, 마산창, 삼랑창등 3조창을 설치하고, 조운선을 만들어 배치했으며, 조운선에 승선할 조군을 차정하였다. 이로써 조선전기 태종연간 폐지된 경상도 남해안의 조운제가 전격 재개되었다. The thesis is designed to understand the transformation of the tax grain transport system in Gyeongsang―do during the late Joseon period and figure out the status of Jounje (‘tax―in―kind transport system’) in the late Joseon period by verifying the government`s intention projected in the installation of Samjochang. Jounje lasted through the late 19th century, undergoing frequent changes since the foundation of the Joseon Dynasty. This suggests that the intention of the dynastic government was fully reflected in direct involvement in, management and control of the tax grain transport, which was directly related to the state finance. In Gyeongsang―do during the reign of King Taejong in the early Joseon period, accidents involving tax―in―kind boats cancelled the tax―in―kind transport system, which was revived with the reign of King Gwanghaegun in the 17th century. Initially, Jounje wasn`t restored, and the operation used ‘leased privately―owned boats’ which used gyeonggangseon. The transport business by Yeongnam Daedongbeob enacted in 1678 (in the 4th year of King Sukjong`s reign). But the transport business by gyeonggangseon owners remained within the scope authorized by the government, which continued to intervene to ensure the safety of the tax gran trasnport. Such government involvement was demonstrated by the fact that tax grain transport right was granted only to those gyeonggangseon listed on seonan (船案 ‘ship registry’) such as hojo (‘Ministry of Finance’), Seonhyecheong, and Hunryeondogam (‘a military unit responsible for capital city defense’), presence of chasawon (差使員 ‘temporariliy dispatched central government official’) on gyeonggangseon eradicated illegalities and prevented maritime accidents, and the government specified leases for gyeonggangseon, thus precluding unfair boat charges. Following the large maritime disasters in 1728 (in the 4th year of King Yeongjo`s reign) and in 1731 (in the 7th year of King Yeongjo`s reign), the government tried to replace gyeonggangseon by introducing jitoseon (地土船 ‘boats owned by provincial owners’) in order to supress the transport business of gyeonggangseon owners. Despite the promulgation of Joseon jeolmok, however jitoseon was not properly managed, which allowed gyeonggangseon to play its dominant role in the tax grain transport. Thereafter, gyeonggangseon owners got involved in such irregularities as gopae (故敗 ‘deliberate sinking of a boat’), hwasu (和水 ‘padding of grain with water for misappropriation’), and tusik (偸食 ‘embezzzlement of part or whole of grain in transport’). Such malpractices added to the tax burden of grassroots, while diminishing the state finance. In the end, with a view to totally banning the transport business by gyeonggangseon owners, the government installed Samjochang (‘three jochang {tax grain storage}’) of Gasanchang, Masanchang, and Samrangchang in Jinju, Changwon, and Milyang on two occasions in 1760 (in the 36th year of King yeongjo`s reign) and in 1765 (in the 41st year of King yeongjo`s reign), built and deployed jounseon (‘tax grain transport boat’), and assigned jogun (‘tax grain boat crew’). With this, jounje, which had been cancelled during King Taejong`s reign in the early Joseon period, was drastically resumed.

조선후기 雙樹山城의 군사편제와 병력운영

문광균(Moon, Kwang-kyun) 한국사학회 2016 史學硏究 Vol.0 No.121

공주는 차령산맥과 금강에 둘러싸여 있는 지리적 요충지였다. 이러한 지리적 여건으로 인해 이곳은 고대 이래 방어 거점으로 주목되어 왔고, 조선후기에는 쌍수산성이 설치되었다. 본 논문은 군사사적인 입장에서 쌍수산성의 수축과 변천 과정, 그리고 군사편제와 병력 운영의 실상을 밝히고자 한 글이다. 조선전기 퇴락되었던 공주의 公山城이 수축된 것은 선조 36년(1603)이었다. 임진왜란이 종식된 직후 조선정부는 공주에 충청감영을 설치하고, 감사 중심의 행정체계와 군사체계를 일원화하였다. 이 과정에서 충청감사 柳根은 공산성을 대대적으로 수축하였다. 공산성은 李适의 난때 인조의 파천지로 활용된 직후 雙樹山城으로 개칭되었고, 이로 인하여 ‘聖祖駐蹕之地’라는 위상을 갖게 되었다. 쌍수산성은 유사시 충청감사가 군사를 이 끌고 주둔하는 곳이었으므로 감영산성의 성격을 띠게 되었다. 쌍수산성의 병력과 군비가 대대적으로 확충된 것은 수축된 지 100년이 지난 숙종 29년(1703)이었다. 18세기를 전후한 시기는 대외정세의 불안으로 海防論이 등장하면서 지역방어체계가 한창 강화되던 때였다. 이러한 상황에서 정부는 부족한 충청감사의 병력을 보충하고자 충청병사 휘하의 속오군을 쌍수산성으로 배속시키고, 이 병력을 토대로 군사편제를 정비하였다. 그리고 동시에 쌍수산성의 군사를 지휘할 실질 책임자로 정3품의 巡營中軍을 임명하였다. 쌍수산성은 중군영을 중심으로 1營-3部-6司-26哨의 속오군 편제와 2馬隊-5哨로 기동대로 구성되었다. 18세기 이후 쌍수산성의 병력은 약 8,000명 정도였다. 이 중 대다수는 束伍步軍, 束伍牙兵, 守堞軍官, 收米牙兵등 이었다. 이 병력은 충청도내 45개 군현에서 읍의 규모와 거리에 따라 차등적으로 충원했지만, 대부분은 공주의 백성이었다. 그러나 쌍수산성의 병력은 役價만을 납부하는 納布軍이었다. 즉, 쌍수산성에는 유사시를 대비하여 많은 병력이 편제되어 있었지만, 평시에는 군사행정 비용을 충당하는 재정원으로 활용하였던 것이다. 정부는 이러한 병력운영방식을 통해 쌍수산성을 유지해갔다. Gongju was geographical key position surrounded by Charyeong Mountain Range and Geumgang river. However, Gongju of early Joseon period was not focused as military key position although defense facility of border area of the North and the coast of the South. But, geographical and socio-economic condition of Gongju was focused during the Japanese invasion of Korea, mountain fortress was established and then, it became defense mountain fortress, the base of Chungcheong-do. This thesis concentrated on the investigation of actual status of military organization and mountain fortress management of Ssangsu mountain fortress in late Joseon period from a military angle. Gong mountain fortress abolished in early Joseon period was established in the 36th year of Seonjo(1603). In the year, government transferred gamyeong in Gong mountain fortress and audit-centered administrative system and military system were unified. In the process, auditor 柳根 extensively established Gong mountain fortress which was the base defense facility during the Japanese invasion of Korea. The position of Gong mountain fortress was enhanced while its name was changed to Ssangsu mountain fortress rightly after the utilization of refuge place of Injo during the rebellion of 李适. And, in the 24th year of Injo(1646), it was reestablished due to the rebellion of 安益信. Ssangsu mountain fortress became gwanbang of Chungcheong-do from military function after 100 years of the establishment, the 29th year of Sookjong(1703). In the period, regional defense system was much strengthened with appearance of 海防論as foreign situation was unstable. In the situation, 3,000 sokogun soldiers under Chungcheong military were arranged in Ssangsu mountain fortress and based on the military strength, military organization of Ssangsu mountain fortress was prepared based on Soko law. In addition, for the director of the military strength, 巡營中軍 who was dangsang of jeong3pum was nominated. Through the process to secure military strength of Chungcheong gamyoung in the 17th century, about 8,000 people were arranged to Ssangsu mountain fortress. But, while foreign situation was stable after the 18th century, government arranged military soldiers to the center and from them, collected some financial sources. In addition, most of the soldiers belonged to the regional military institution were becoming 納布軍化. In the stream of military policy, most of the military strength of Ssangsu mountain fortress became nappogunhwa.

南坡 洪宇遠의 經世論

문광균(Moon, Kwang-Kyun) 고려사학회 2017 한국사학보 Vol.- No.67

본 논문은 17세기 대표적인 남인 정치인이었던 홍우원의 경세론을 살핀 글이다. 양란이 끝난 17세기는 재원확보의 물적 토대라 할 수 있는 호구와 전결이 제대로 파악되지 않아 지방재정에 대한 통제력이 약화되던 시기였다. 게다가 전란이라는 특수한 상황에서 정부는 結布, 三手米, 西糧米등 신규 부세를 창설하여 국가재정에 충당하였고, 지방의 감.병.수영을 비롯한 군현도 토지와 호구를 매개로 하여 독자적인 재원을 확보하였다. 그 사이 백성은 과도한 부세와 과외 징수에 노출되었다. 이와 같이 백성의 존립이 위태롭던 시기 홍우원은 민의 항산 유지를 위한 安民策을 제시하였다. 먼저, 그는 성리학적 재정이념인 損上益下의 원리에 따라 국가재정을 운영해야 한다고 보았다. 왕조정부가 수취하는 재원을 가급적 재분배해야 나라의 근간인 백성이 안정적인 삶을 영위할 수 있다고 보았다. 내수사의 무절제한 재원확보에 대한 비판, 궁방과 군문의 둔전혁파 요구 등은 그 대표적 주장이었다. 다음으로 그가 제시한 안민책은 減稅와 蠲役이었다. 그는 자연재해나 전란 등을 계기로 정상적인 부세수취가 어려울 경우, 또는 일부지역에 편중된 역이 부과되어 있는 경우에는 감세와 견역 조치를 취하여 백성의 생계기반을 유지해주고자 했다. 실제 농작 상황을 고려하여 給災結을 지급하고, 경상도의 산간지역인 예안현의 감세를 위해 전품을 下下로 낮춰달라고 올린 상소는 그 대표적 감세책이었다. 마지막으로 그가 제시한 안민책은 포흠 환곡 탕감이었다. 17세기 중엽을 전후한 시기는 극심한 기근기였다. 자연재해로 인한 기근과 전염병은 수많은 생명을 앗아갔고, 백성의 삶의 터전을 무너뜨렸다. 홍우원은 그 처참한 상황을 목도하고, 이를 타개하고자 진휼정책에 몰두하였다. 특히 경신대기근을 겪은 이후에는 기근 이전의 포흠환곡을 전면 탕감해야 한다고 주장하였다. 이러한 그의 기민구제책은 현실화되어 많은 백성들이 그 혜택을 입을 수 있었다. 이와 같이 홍우원은 17세기 남인학자로서 민의 항산을 보장하기 위한 여러 방안을 강구하고 있었고, 이를 현실정치에 반영하고자 부단히 노력하고 있었던 인물이었다. Hong Wu-won was acting in about the middle stage of the 17th century. This thesis intends to examine governance theory of Hong Wu-won who was a representative Namin politician in the 17th century. Joseon Dynasty managed national finance based on Joyongjo. Dynasty government raised royal position based on the finance collected from people and maintained bureaucracy. On the other hand, they paid diplomacy and military expenses and strengthened royal system. And, they stored a part of finances at the proper position for natural disasters such as drought, flood damage, etc. and guaranteed the fixed property of people. Hong Wu-won made lots of efforts so as to guarantee people’s livelihood and realize their welfare. First of all, he considered that national finance should be managed by a theory of sonsangikha(損上益下), a concept of Neo-Confucianism. He considered that finances Royal government collects must be redistributed as much as possible for people’s stable lives. His representative opinions were criticism of local government’s intemperate grasping of finances, requests for dunjeon hyukpa of gungbang and gunmun, etc. Next, people’s welfare policy he suggested was for tax reduction (減稅) and labor reduction. If it was difficult to collect taxes because of the natural disaster or war, or taxes were opposed to only some regions, he took measures of tax reduction and gyunyuk so as to maintain the base of people’s livelihood. He considered actual situation of farming and paid geupjaegyul(給災結) and an appeal to reduce jeonpoom to haha(下下) for tax reduction of yenahyun in mountains of Gyeongsang-do was a representative tax-reduction policy. Finally, people’s welfare policy he suggested was poheum hwangok tanggam. The period of about the 17th century was a severe famine period. Famine and infectious disease, caused by natural disasters, killed lots of lives and collapsed people’s houses. Hong Wu-won discovered the terrible situation and concentrated on jinhyul policy so as to solve them. Especially, after the gyeongsin big famine, he insisted that poheum hwangok before the Gyeongsin year should be forgiven. The famine solving policy could be actualized and helpful for many people. Thus, Hong Wu-won prepared several policies so as to guarantee the fixed property of people as a Namin scholar of the 17th century and made an effort to reflect the measures to actual policy.

플라이애쉬와 글리콜에테르계 수축저감제를 사용한 시멘트계 매트릭스의 건조수축

문광균 ( Moon Kwang Kyun ),홍기남 ( Hong Ki Nam ),연영모 ( Yeon Yeong Mo ) 한국구조물진단유지관리공학회 2017 한국구조물진단유지관리공학회 학술발표대회 논문집 Vol.21 No.1

This study presents the results of experimental research to investigate the drying shrinkage properties of mortar containing the fly-ash and glycol-ether shrinkage reducing agent. the drying shrinkage of mortar was measured according to KS F 2424. It was confirmed from test results that 10% fly-ash replacement and 1% shrinkage reducing agent is most effective to decrease the shrinkage of mortar.

조선후기 충청도 안흥첨사의 위상과 재임실태

문광균(Moon, Kwang-kyun) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2021 군사 Vol.- No.120

This study paid attention to special army officer of Anheung, one of naval commanders in Chungcheong-do to examine one aspect of regional political rule done in military territories. For this, the study examined special army officers of Anheung"s actual conditions of holding office as preliminary work and a case study for the study on Anheungjin Camp"s regional political rule. In this study, Special army officers of Anheung which was analyzed, was targeted at 140 people who had been appointed since King Hyojong. Special army officers of Anheung"s term in office was legally 30 months. But the average period that special army officers of Anheung were in office in the reigns of Hyojong of Joseon to Gojong of Korea was about 17 months. Special army officers of Anheung who were termed out of office continued public office in various fields including capital and local officials. About 40% of the total number of officers except the people who dismissed from office belonged to Buhogun to wait for personnel appointments, about 26% was appointed commanders of the senior grade of third rank including commanders of Five Military Commands and commanders of Concurrent Royal Stables. The rate to be promoted to local officials was about 20%. Among them, the rate to be promoted to naval commanders, the high rank of the naval forces was just 6.5% and the case of being promoted to garrison commanders, army inspectors, chiefs of staffs, and county magistrates was 13%. On the other hand, 27.8% of the whole special army officers of Anheung were disgraced as they dismissed from office, were exiled, or were forced into the army. Among them, the people who dismissed from office found from historical records were 36 people. The majority of them dismissed from office because of careless management and transportation of cargo vessels and imperfect management of military food. In addition, the failure of the oyster port of Anheung Port, insufficient reports and management of handover lines, excessive collection of taxation, and matters to repair the mountain fortress led to their dismissal from office. This shows that special army officers of Anheung was conducting Local Magistrates, such as the other regional magistrate.

조선전기 한강 津渡制의 성립과 변화

문광균(Moon, Kwang-Kyun) 고려사학회 2019 한국사학보 Vol.- No.76

조선시대 한강은 수도를 보호하고, 물류를 유통하는 중요한 자연환경이었다. 그러나 강폭이 넓고 유량이 풍부하여 육로교통을 단절시키는 문제도 있었다. 이를 위해 조선왕조는 고려의 유제를 받아들여 津渡를 설치하였다. 수도 인근 한강변에 있던 진도는 일반 행인 뿐 아니라 국왕의 행차에도 자주 이용되었다. 그러므로 한강의 진도는 다른 진도와 달리 국왕의 행행의 영향을 많이 받았다. 그 대표적인 곳이 광주 마전포, 즉 三田渡였다. 광주의 삼전도는 講武가 자주 시행되었던 지역일 뿐만 아니라 많은 왕릉이 조성되었던 곳이었으므로 조선전기 국왕 행행이 가장 빈번했고, 결국 진도제에 편입되었다. 조선전기 진도제는 연산군대 이르러 금표정책으로 일시 폐기되었다. 그러다 중종 반정으로 진도제는 다시 복구되었고, 이후 정부는 한강 도강에 따른 안정규정을 강화해 갔다. 이러한 한강 진도를 둘러싼 변화는 『경국대전』과 『대전후속록』에 명문화되었다. Water transportation system(津渡制度) of Joseon Dynasty was established while succeeded from Yuje of Koryo period. Howeve, as the capital was transferred to Hanyang, it was impossible to succeed water transportation of Koryo period as it was. First of all, joawudosuchampangwan(左右道水站判官) was newly established so as to manage grains and water transportation of Hangang River, Imjingang River, and Yeseonggang River. And water transportation was expanded in doseong such as Noryangdo, Gwangjin, etc., water transportation byulgam(津渡別監) was abolished, and doseung(渡丞) was dispatched. In Sejong~Seongjong, as status of Gwangju Samjeondo was enhanced, water transportation system was regulated and arranged again. Since Taejong, hunting system(講武) and neunghaeng(陵行) of national king were conducted in Gwangju. As national king went to Gwangju often, ferryboat(津船) and jinbu(津夫) were arranged in samjeondo during Sejong King. In Sejo King, it became key water transportation that doseung was dispatched. At the same time, government arranged several regulations such as doseung’s appointment, personnel evaluation, regular members of ferryboat and jinbu, payment of neumjeon and jinbujeon, etc. so as to manage water transportation systematically. From Yeonsangun~Jungjong, water transportation system was pushed. During Yeonsangun, water transportation was collapsed because of baedari(浮橋) hypothesis and geumpyo(禁標) policy of Hangang River. Especially, geumpyo policy was a decisive opportunity to ablosh water transportation. However due to Jungjongbanjung, water transportation system was recovered and safety regulations of dogang was prepared while experiencing huge mortality events of Yanghwa-do and bank revetment of Gyunhang(犬項). Water transportation system established and arranged in the former stage of Joseon Dynasty was continued until the latter part of 16th century. And then, it was collapsed rapidly due to the two times of wars. And guarantee places such as Ganghwado Mountain, Namhansanseong Fortress, etc. became important in the 17th century. While preparing defense system of doseong in the 18th century, transportation system focusing on Hangang River predicts another change.