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김옥렬 淑明女子大學校 亞細亞女性問題硏究所 1993 아시아여성연구 Vol.32 No.-
The social participation of Korean women has grown since the end of World War II when Korea was liberated from Japanese rule. The Korean Wax and the rapid industrialization and the democratization of the country spurred women's consciousness and concern about the status of women. The change in traditional roles was manifest in demands to expand women's employment and political participation and to change of laws which discriminated against women. Today, women's roles and options vary and have permeated all walks of life. Nontraditional roles such as lawyers and doctors are enviable occupations for women to choose and large numbers work for the goverment and in business. Many external change have altered the lives and values of Korean women. Urbanization, nuclear family life, increased participation in the work force, and new political right have enlarged women's life styles and aspirations. Despite numerous and impressive external changes in new patterns of living, the feminine tradition has resisted change. About two third of single women leave the work place after marriage, but about 30% regret leaving employment. Many other women are exploring a two role life style, fundamentally committed to the domestic role but also gainfully emloyed outside the home. The dual-role life style is increasingly accepted in the lives of Korean women, who report considerable satisfaction. Many women work within a broad framework, not only because of financial necessity but to widen their experiences and for self-fulfilment. In Spite of this progress and advances in the status of women, vestiges of inequality still remain in society, primarily in employment, with differing wages and slow promotions, and the scarcity of women in decision-making positions in all fields, including education. In contrast of grass-roots political activities, very few women go into active politics, such as running for the national and local assemblies and seeking policical power. Even when the law attempts to give equality to women, customs of inequality of women make it hard to change the situation. Fundamentally, the heightening of women's consciousness in recent years is not sufficient for women themselves and men. The preference for sons is deep seated in Korea. The tradition of male dominance persists. Political socialization is nesessary from childhood through the school years. Therefore, the role of the mother in instilling the nation of equality in children can be essential. At school, teachers, attitudes can influence the students in a positive way. Institutional impediment such as the electoral system should by revised so as to encourage women to participate more actively. Access to education and training is a key to women's social and economic progress. A lack of appropriate employment opportunities for educated women dampens their enthusiasm for active social participation. Where jobs are scarce, they tend to go to men first, so parents reasonably conclude that investing in education for their daughters offers a less return than in education for their sons. Vocational training for girls should be intensified. Especially, integrated or special training programs should be developed for girls and women in rural areas to enable them to participate fully and productively in economic and social development. In view of the fact the major obstacles to improving the status of women lie in public attitudes and values regarding women's roles in society, the mass media play an important role in shaping opinions regarding women, and can exercise a significant influence in helping to remove prejudices against women. The government and various other organizations should encourage the mass media to take an objective view towards women and to provide information on the current status of women in various countries, with particular emphasis on the changing roles of men and women and various options available as a result. The mass media should seek to raise the public, consciousness with regard to these changing roles, and should be urged to project a more positive view of women and to take into account the diversity of women's roles and their actual and potential contrribution to society at large.
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金玉烈 淑明女子大學校 1964 論文集 Vol.4 No.-
In Western Europe, a very significant political movement is taking place, the movement for European integration. After two devastating world wars, Europe was collapsed physically and spiritually. Especially after the World WarⅡ, war-torn Europe was confronted with two giants of the United States and Soviet Russia. The center of world politics was shifted from Europe to two giants. With devastated economy coupled with communist threat, Europe had to defend her own time honored civilization. With the help of the United States and their own efforts and ability, to reconstruct Europe, she finally succeeded in not only bringing European reconstructuion but also political stability and economic prosperity. Europeans did not achieve this individually but in unity under the banner of great Europe having common history and tradition and pride being Europeans. Their political awakening and economic requirements made them advance under the common principle. Eapecially, the Suez and Hungarian Revolution of 1956 gave the political leaders the sense of urgency unite. The idea of Europeans unity is not new. It has been the ideal of Europeans from the ancient time. Dante, Du Bois, Maligny, Sully and many others dreamt about it. Great political leaders of postwar period such as Churchill, De Gasperi, Adenauer, and Spaak contributed greatly to the idea of European integration. The movement for European integration really started with Schuman plan. European Common Market which started in 1957 made a great progress toward economic integration ultimately aiming at political integration of Europe. In the movement for European integration, both political and economic factors are complimentary. Even though astonishing fruits have been won in the direction of European integration, the prospects for final political integration is remote because of countries' respect for national sovereignty, rivalry, and conflicts of interests of countries concerned. Furthermore, Great Britain is not yet a member of European Economic Community. Her application for EEC membership brought a new picture. At present, French refusal of British application brings complication. There are two approaches to integration. The one is federalism under which nations surrender their sovereignty to a supra-national organization favored by small countries. The other is confederation favored by Great Britain and France under which the nations want to retain freedom of action and independence. There are also federalism vs. functionalism. The latter is more practical and applicable in attaining economic integration with the view toward political integration as the final goal. I survived the development of European integration since the World War Ⅱ, starting from Council of Europe, to Organization for European Economic Cooperation, NATO, European Coal and Steel Community, European Economic Community, EURATOM, and European Free Trade Association. The success of European Common Market greatly encouraged the idea of economic integration and possibly political integration in the future. The economic success of 6 countries is so enormous and impressive that Great Britain finally decided to apply for membership. All five member countries welcome her entry to the Common Market except France. Gen. De Gaulle, with his Grand Design, wants a big say and power in European community with rapproachment of Germany. Under French leadership, he wants to make Europe as the Third Force vis a vis the United States and Russia. His cry for grandeur discourages some small countries which are genuinely interested in European integration. In this paper, attitudes and positions of other countries are also considered. The United States favors Atlantic partnership which includes Great Britain and the United States as well.
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김옥렬,이경숙 淑明女子大學校 亞細亞女性問題硏究所 1992 아시아여성연구 Vol.31 No.-
Political rights have been extended to women throughout the world in the twentieth century. Women's political participation is now widely accepted and sometimes encouraged. In Korea, women gained suffrage after World War II and now are active in basic political participation such as voting, campaigning and joining political parties. Important, however, is that women remain marginal in politics. At political elite levels, the number of women is few and they lack power. Korean women's consciousness was raised during the women's movement in the latter part of the sixties and by the United Nations Proclamation of the Women's Year in 1975. Now, many studies are conducted on the political participation of Korean Women. The renewed interest in political participation surged due to the coming of local autonomy in 1990 after a thirty year absence, and the democratization of the country. On the eve of local elections held in 1991, many people thought that this could be a good opportunity for women to run for a local assembly. Seminars and training sessions were held for potential women candidates and several women's clubs were formed for the occasion. The outcome, however, was disappointing, only 40 out of 124 were elected(0.9% of the total). In recognizing the importance of political power, Korean women are increasingly politically conscious these days. On the average, 2% of Korean women representatives were elected for the National Assemly. On the executive level, the highest positions are held at the cabinet level. Since the Equal Employment Law passed in 1987, more women go into government comprising 24.6% of the total. In the Judiciary, women lawyers are on the rise. Among the constraints for active political participation by women, the present electoral system should be revised so as to facilitate women candidates to run and get elected. Recently, many women's organizations have been formed to raise women's legal, political and economic status and to influence governmental decision making. There are numerous community groups and volunteer organizations in which women work for the environment, consumer rights and other social services. As mentioned before, the purpose of this research is to examine and analyze the political participation of women in Korea and specifically to empirically investigate the relationships between various factors and the degree to which Korean women participate in the political process which influences governmental decision-making. We have made six hypotheses relative to this study: that is, women residing in rural and small areas, married women, older women, better educated women, women of higher economic status and employed women will more actively participate in the political process. The generalization of our findings which prove or refute our original hypotheses can be summarized as follows: 1. (a) Women in rural and small communities tend to participate more actively in political rallies, while women in Seoul and large cities are more likely to take part in voting. 1. (b) Women in Seoul and large cities did not vote because they were politically disappointed and women in urban and large areas feel it is harder to find a favorite candidate to vote for. 1. (c) Women in urban and large areas are more interested in politics. However, women living in rural and small areas are more willing to run for election. 2. (a) Married women tend to participate more in political rallies and voting. 2. (b) Married women did not vote because they were more politically disappointed while unmarried women did not vote because they feel it is harder to find a favorite candidate to vote for. 2. (c) Married women are more interested in politics, while unmarried women are more willing to run for elections. 3. (a) Older women are more likely to participate in political rallies and voting. 3. (b) Middle aged women did not vote because they were more politically disappointed, while younger women are more likely to give up their right to vote because they could not find a favorite candidates to vote for. 3. (c) Women in their twenties or fifties and over more inclined to run for elections than middle-aged women who have more responsibilities for children. Older women are more interested in politics. 4. (a) Less educated women tend to participate more actively in political rallies and voting. 4. (b) Better educated women did not vote because they feel it is harder for them to find a favorite candidate to vote for. On the other hand, less educated women did not vote because they feel more political disappointment. 4. (c) Better educated women are more interested in politics and in running for elections. 5. (a) Lower or upper class women are more likely to participate in political rallies than middle class women. The higher the economic class of women, the more they are inclined to take part in voting. 5. (b) Middle class women are more politically disappointed than lower or upper class women and upper or lower class women feel it is harder to find a favorite candidat to vote for. 5. (c) Women of higher economic status are more interested in politics. But women of lower economic status are more likely to run for elections. 6. (a) Unemployed women are more inclined to take part in political rallies and voting. 6. (b) Employed women did not vote because they feel more political disappointment, while unemployed women did not vote because they feel it is harder for them to find a favorite candidate to vote for. 6. (c) Employed women are more interested in politics and in running for elections. Our findings also show that women are motivated to vote to either fulfill their civil duty or exert their right to vote. And women are more inclined to do their civil duty than to exert their right. Most women make voting decisions by themselves and they don't depend on the opinion of their husbands, relatives or friends. Political ability, morality and political party affiliation are three important factors for women in choosing a candidate. Women are most interested in the political offairs of daily life such as the price of commodities, housing, traffic, etc. The majority of women parliamentarians are able but can't perform well due to institutional restraints. Among the reasons why few women have been elected to the 14th general election in March, 1992, women think social conditions such as institutional factors are most critical, the second most important factor is the lack of women candidates' capacity and the third most significant factor is the level of women voters' consciousness. The majority of women surveyed perceive that voting influences politics and women are more concerned about economic problems, such as price stabilization, than political or social problems.
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