중국 희토류 무기화와 미얀마 군부 쿠데타의 관계 고찰

임상범(Lim, Sang Bum) 한국세계지역학회 2021 世界地域硏究論叢 Vol.39 No.4

본 논문은 중국이 ‘첨단 산업의 비타민’으로 불리는 전략자원인 희토류를 어떻게 무기화해 왔는지 그 역사와 최근 동향을 다루고 있다. 중국은 세계 최대 희토류 생산국이자 매장지이며, 에너지안보 차원에서 미국을 비롯한 경쟁국들을 상대로 이른바 희토류 패권을 추구해 왔다. 우월적인 지위를 이용해 일본이나 미국 등을 상대로 한 분쟁과 협상에서 희토류를 레버리지로 활용해왔다. 하지만 최근 중국은 희토류 생산과정에서 발생하는 환경오염에 대한 국내외의 우려와 국내 희토류 산업의 재편으로 인해 글로벌 희토류 시장에서점유율과 영향력이 점차 감소하게 됐다. 자국 내 희토류 생산을 조절하는 대신 새로운 희토류 공급처가 필요해졌다. 중국은 국경을 마주하는 이웃나라이자 서남아시아 최대의 자원부국인 미얀마에 주목했다. 미얀마산(産) 희토류는 중국으로 수입돼 정제 과정을 거쳐세계 시장으로 다시 수출됐다. 미얀마는 금세 중국의 최대 희토류 수입국이 됐다. 장기간미얀마를 통치해 온 군부는 물론, 민주화 이후 2015년 등장한 문민정부에 이르기까지 중국은 정치적, 경제적 지원을 통해 우호 관계를 유지해왔다. 군부 독재와 로힝야 사태를 비난하며 경제 제재에 나선 서방국가들과 달리 중국은 줄곧 미얀마 정권을 옹호해왔다. 그대가로 희토류를 비롯한 자원조달에 있어서 다양한 특혜를 누려왔다. 특히 올해 초 미얀마에서 일어난 군부 쿠데타는 중국에게는 기회가 됐다. 군부는 그동안 자원에 대한 통제권을이용해 중국으로부터 검은 돈을 확보해 왔고, 그런 군부가 일으킨 쿠데타를 중국은 묵인하고 사실상 지지했다. 미얀마 군부와의 긴밀한 유착을 바탕으로 미얀마산(産) 희토류의 안정적인 공급을 확보한 중국은 다시금 희토류 무기화에 적극적으로 나서고 있다. This paper deals with the history and recent trends of how China has weaponized rare earthelements, a strategic resource called Vitamins of high-tech industries. China is the world slargest producer and reserve of rare earths, and has pursued so-called ‘rare earth hegemony’against the United States and other competitors in terms of energy security. Using its superiorposition, rare earths have been used as leverage in disputes and negotiations against Japanand the United States. However, China s market share and influence in the global rare earthmarket have gradually declined due to domestic and foreign concerns over environmentalpollution in the process of rare earth production and the reorganization of the domestic rareearth industry. Instead of controlling the production of rare earth in the country, China needsa new source of rare earth. China early paid attention to Myanmar, a neighboring countryfacing the border and the largest resource rich country in southwest Asia. Myanmar rareearths were imported into China and exported back to the global market after refining. Myanmar quickly became China s largest importer of rare earth. China has maintainedfriendly relations through political and economic support, including the military, which hasruled Myanmar for a long time, as well as the civilian government, which emerged in 2015after democratization. Unlike Western countries, which criticized the military dictatorshipand the Rohingya crisis and imposed economic sanctions, China has always defended theMyanmar regime. In return, it has enjoyed various preferential treatment in raising resources,including rare earths. In particular, the military coup in Myanmar earlier this year was anopportunity for China. The military has used control over resources to secure black moneyfrom China, and China has condoned and virtually supported the coup caused by such amilitary. China, which has secured a stable supply of Myanmar s rare earth based on its closeties with the Myanmar military, is now actively weaponizing rare earths again.

공학적 관점에서 본 희토류 자원의 HSK, 체계적 관리를 통한 국가 통계 및 자원 관리

주현승,김정곤 한국관세학회 2023 관세학회지 Vol.24 No.2

Rare earth elements, which are necessities of high-tech industries, are increasingly needed in current and future industries. With the spread of electric vehicles, the development of information and communication technology, the value of rare earth resources such as neodymium and lanthanum is exploding, and the use of cerium is increasing due to the development of the catalyst industry. The importance of importing and exporting rare earths and securing inventories is being emphasized as disputes over rare earth resources have flared up among developed countries in the past. In particular, Korea has a lot of demand for rare earth elements due to the development of the electronics industry and petrochemical industry, and cannot produce resources of rare earth elements, so most of them are imported, so they have a lot of interest. Statistical information is important for efficient management of rare earth elements and mineral resources. Therefore, it is possible to obtain subdivided and accurate statistical data through the systematization of the HS code in the import and export process. Also, as a matter of national policy, it is necessary to support the supply and demand of raw materials and recycling of rare earth element-related industries. 첨단산업의 필수품인 희토류 원소는 현재와 미래의 산업에서 그 필요성이 더욱 증가하고 있다. 전기차의 보급과 정보통신 기술의 발전으로 네오디뮴, 란타늄 등의 희토류 자원의 가치가 폭증하고 있으며, 촉매공업의 발달로 인해 세륨 등의 사용이 증가하고 있다. 과거 선진 국가들 사이에서 희토류 자원 분쟁이 붉어지면서 희토류의 수출입과 재고 확보의 중요성이 강조되고 있다. 특히, 우리나라는 전자산업과 석유화학공업이 발달하여 희토류 원소의 수요가 많고 희토류 원소의 자원을 생산할 수 없어 대부분 수입하고 있어많은 관심을 가지고 있다. 이 논문은 희토류 원소 및 광물자원의 효율적인 관리를 위해 통계적 정보가 중요하다. 따라서 수출입 과정에서 HS code의 체계화를 통해 세분화되고 정확한 통계자료를 얻을 수 있다. 또한 국가 정책적으로 희토류 원소관련 산업의 원료 수급 및 재자원화 등의 지원이 필요하다.

희귀금속 및 희토류의 전략성과 국가안전보장: 자원의 편재성과 희귀자원 확보정책의 관점에서

김종호 한국국가정보학회 2016 국가정보연구 Vol.9 No.1

Many Koreans received their first introduction to rare earth elements (REEs) in 2010, when the previously obscure commodities became the subjects of front-page headlines. Amid news of an alleged Chinese embargo on REE exports and ensuing concerns over potential supply disruptions, the news-reading public suddenly realized that these raw materials underpin products they care about. REEs are no doubt important strategic materials, and for policymakers, China’s alleged 2010 embargo marked an important new chapter in China’s willingness to use its growing market strength to punctuate a geopolitical point. But the actual events that unfolded in the global REE market following the 2010 episode proved these initial concerns were just the newest entry in a long line of exaggerated fears and panics about leading economies’ access to raw materials. Policymakers and industry executives voiced concern over the many high-tech products reliant on REEs-ranging from state defense systems to green technologies such as wind turbines and electric cars. Meanwhile, average Korean citizens not motivated by policy battles or supply-chain vulnerabilities wanted rare earth products to make their cell phones vibrate, their earphones sound perfect, and their gasoline a little cheaper. As the occasional story had noted for years, REEs are wonder materials. The central problem brought into sharp relief in 2010 was that China had cornered the supply. If ever China were looking for natural resources that its political leaders could use to extract high profits and geopolitical leverage, rare earths appeared a near-perfect candidate. At the time of the alleged 2010 embargo, Chinese firms accounted for 97 percent of rare-earth oxide production and a large fraction of the processing business that turns these into rare earth metals, alloys, and products like magnets. This near-monopoly was in a market with surging demand and intense political resonance in consuming countries. And the most dependent countries-primarily Japan and the United States, but also several European stateshappened to be those over which China most wanted influence. Panicked policymakers in the United States and elsewhere began to consider extraordinary measures to protect their countries from potential Chinese leverage. But even with such apparently favorable circumstances, market power and political leverage proved fleeting and difficult to exploit. Each crisis is different, but the largely successful market response in rare earths offers lessons for policymakers for the next crisis over raw materials imports. Future crises are unlikely to seem so perfectly orchestrated to make the Korea and its allies vulnerable: the materials in question may be more prosaic or the country where supplies are concentrated may loom less ominously than China. But even in the apparently most-dangerous case of rare earth elements, the problem rapidly faded-and not primarily due to government action. In the 2000s, the United States came to depend on China for its supply of rare earth materials, and American consumers came to expect the high performance that those imports allowed in defense systems, consumer electronics, and the growing green economy. Experts projected only further growth in demand for rare earths, so when China ratcheted down its export quota and tried to use its leverage in this market to put political pressure on Japan, pundits and politicians feared the worst. Conditions seemed ideal for China to earn extra-high profits and to compel foreign policy concessions. Supply was extremely concentrated in China, consumer demand seemed large and inelastic, substitute products appeared markedly inferior in quality and price terms, and consumption of critical intermediate goods was focused in a few countries that were specifically the ones China wanted to target with its foreign policy. China may have won the immediate release of a fishing captain, but potential Chinese leverage dissipa... 본고의 연구를 시작한 계기는 희귀금속 및 REE, 특히 희토류에 대한 세계적 동향의언론보도에 있다. 필자는 본고 집필 중에 상상 이상으로 전세계에 걸쳐 자원확보 전쟁이 어지럽게 발생하고 있다는 사실을 확인할 수 있었다. 특히 주요 공급원인 중국에서는 희토류 자원고갈, 환경보호 측면 및 밀수단속 등을 이유로 수출 면에서 제한적 경향이 나타나고 있어 향후 세계적으로 중국의 상황이 주목된다. 어떤 종류의 자원이 한 나라의 안보전략상 중요한 물자인지 여부, 부족한 양을 어느정도 충족시킬 것인가는 수요의 대상이 되는 자원의 공급량, 기술력, 국제정세와 시대배경과 같은 여러 요인으로 구성되어 있다고 생각한다. 과거 유럽의 석탄과 철광석에대해서는 그 이상의 분쟁을 회피할 수 있도록 공동관리 체제 하의 관련국들이 상생 공영하는 방안 현대식으로 말하면 Win-Win방향 설정이 이루어진 것은 잘 알려진 사실이다. 희귀금속 및 REE는 그 자체의 성질이나 그것들을 첨가함으로써 얻을 수 있는효과가 현재는 대체성이 거의 없을 정도로 다양한 고성능을 가진 것에서부터, 민생용도, 우리 생활주변의 폭넓은 기계 및 기구에 응용되었고 현대생활에서는 없어서는 안될 필수적인 소재이다. 본고는 그러한 자원의 전략성과 필요성이라는 점에 주목하면서 현대에서 발생하는희귀자원 문제에 대해서 그 안보적 측면과의 관계에서 분석하고 이러한 자원의 확보방안을 검토하였다. 자원문제는 상당히 널리 논의가 확대될 수 있는 가능성을 가진 것이지만, 본고에서는 특히 군사적 전략상 중요한 자원에 초점을 맞추고, 최근 주목받고 있는 희귀(희소)금속 및 희토류 금속(Rare Earth Elements, REE)에 대하여 논의하였다.

Trends of major, minor and rare earth elements in decomposing litter in a cool temperate ecosystem, South Korea

Gautam, Mukesh Kumar,Lee, Kwang-Sik,Berg, Bjö,rn,Song, Byeong-Yeol,Yeon, Jeh-Yeong Pergamon Press 2019 Chemosphere Vol. No.

<P><B>Abstract</B></P> <P>The decomposition dynamics of 34 different elements in four different litter types (foliar and woody litter) from <I>Pinus densiflora</I> (Korean red pine) and <I>Castanea crenata</I> (Korean chestnut) was investigated in a cool temperate ecosystem using the litterbag method. Two contrasting trends were observed in the dynamics of elements with accumulated mass loss of litter and carbon. Leaf litter of Korean chestnut, which was richer in elements, showed a general decrease in concentrations of elements with accumulated mass loss of litter and carbon on a dry mass basis during decomposition in the field. Other litter types, with initially lower concentrations of elements, exhibited an increase in concentration on a dry mass basis during field incubation. Highest relative increase in the concentration was noticed for the minor elements, and for the woody litters. Concentrations of major and minor elements increased by factors ranging from 1.07 for antimony (Sb) to 853.7 for vanadium (V). Rare earth elements (REE) concentrations increased by factors ranging from 1.04 for scandium (Sc) to 83.5 for thorium (Th). Our results suggest that litter type plays an important role for nutrient dynamics. Results from principal component analysis for major, minor, and rare earth elements showed grouping of elements and high correlation among them (<I>P</I> < 0.05), which suggests a common source. At both sites, element concentrations were high in the soil, especially for REE. This suggests that increase in element concentrations during field incubation probably was due to transfer of elements from soil to the overlying decomposing litter.</P> <P><B>Highlights</B></P> <P> <UL> <LI> The dynamics of major, minor, and rare earth element was studied in decomposing forest litter. </LI> <LI> Angiosperm and gymnosperm leaf litter showed contrasting patterns of changes in concentrations of the studied elements. </LI> <LI> Rare earth elements showed identical pattern of accumulation in woody litters after one year of decomposition. </LI> </UL> </P>

ISO TC 298에서의 희토류 재활용 관련 국제 표준화 현황

이미혜,송요셉,온지선,윤승환,한문환,김범성,김택수,이빈 한국분말재료학회 2022 한국분말재료학회지 (KPMI) Vol.29 No.2

Rare earth elements, which are important components of motors, are in high demand and thus constantly get more expensive. This tendency is driven by the growth of the electric vehicle market, as well as environmental issues associated with rare-earth metal manufacturing. TC 298 of the ISO manages standardization in the areas of rare-earth recycling, measurement, and sustainability. Korea, a resource-poor country, is working on international standardization projects that focus on recycling and encouraging the domestic adoption of international standards. ITU-T has previously issued recommendations regarding the recycling of rare-earth metals from e-waste. ISO TC 298 expands on the previous recommendations and standards for promoting the recycling industry. Recycling-related rare earth standards and drafts covered by ISO TC 298, as well as Korea’s strategies, are reviewed and discussed in this article.

Development of rare earth element-doped Ni-Ba(Ce/Zr)O₃ cermets for hydrogen-permeable membranes

Kang, W.R.,Lee, K.B. Korean Society of Industrial and Engineering Chemi 2015 Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry Vol.29 No.-

Substitution of the rare earth element in Ni-Ba(Ce/Zr)O<SUB>3</SUB> cermets (i.e., ceramic-metal composites) is considered a promising method for improving their hydrogen permeability, which could potentially improve the quality of cermet membranes. Microstructure and chemical properties of a rare earth element-doped cermet strongly depend on the type and content of the rare earth element. In this study, Ni-BaCe<SUB>0.5</SUB>Zr<SUB>0.3</SUB>M<SUB>0.2</SUB>O<SUB>3</SUB> (M=Er, Sm) cermets were prepared by a citrate-nitrate gel combustion method. Analyses based on X-ray diffraction, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy indicated that Er and Sm have rather different solubilities in the Ni-Ba(Ce/Zr)O<SUB>3</SUB> cermet and that when the amount of Sm exceeds the solubility limit, it reacts with the cermet, forming an impurity phase. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the substitution of rare earth dopants in Ni-Ba(Ce/Zr)O<SUB>3</SUB> improved the chemical stability of the cermets against CO<SUB>2</SUB> and that Ni-BaCe<SUB>0.5</SUB>Zr<SUB>0.3</SUB>Er<SUB>0.2</SUB>O<SUB>3</SUB> is chemically more stable than Ni-BaCe<SUB>0.5</SUB>Zr<SUB>0.3</SUB>Sm<SUB>0.2</SUB>O<SUB>3</SUB> below 670<SUP>o</SUP>C.

희토류 관련 국제표준 동향 및 시사점

사다르 파라트 아바스,이상현,이빈,김범성,김택수,Abbas, Sardar Farhat,lee, Sang-Hyun,Lee, Bin,Kim, Bum-Sung,Kim, Taek-Soo 한국분말야금학회 2018 한국분말재료학회지 (KPMI) Vol.25 No.2

Rare earth elements (REEs) are considered to be vital to modern industry due to their important roles in applications such as permanent magnets, automobile production, displays, and many more. The imbalance between demand and supply of REEs can be solved by recycling processes. Regarding the needs of industry and society, the International Organization for Standardization, Technical Committee 298 (ISO/TC298) Rare Earths has been recently launched for developing international standards on rare earth elements. In accordance with the suggestion of its constituents, it is tentatively working to develop the appropriate standards under five working groups (WG) on terms and definitions (WG1), element recycling (WG2), environmental stewardship (WG3), packaging, labelling, marking, transport, and storage (WG4), and testing analysis (WG5). The scope and structure of ISO/TC298 on the topic of rare earths is discussed in this document.

희토류 원소 첨가 비정질 찰코지나이드 : 형광 수명과 유리 구조 변화의 관계

최용규,Choi Yong Gyu 한국세라믹학회 2004 한국세라믹학회지 Vol.41 No.9

Lifetime of excited electronic states inside the 4f configuration of rare-earth elements embedded in chalcogenide glasses is very sensitive to medium-range structural changes of the host glasses. We have measured lifetimes of the 1.6$\mu\textrm{m}$ emission originating from Pr$\^$3+/ : ($^3$F$_3$, $^3$F$_4$)\longrightarrow$^3$H$_4$ transition in amorphous chalcogenide samples consisting of Ge, Sb, and Se elements. The measured lifetimes fumed out to have their maximum at the mean coordination number of -2.67, which arises accordingly from structural changes of the host glasses from 2 dimensional layers to 3 dimensional networks. This new finding supports that the so-called topological structure model together with chemically ordered network model is adequate to explain relationship between the emission properties of rare-earth elements and the medium-range structures of amorphous chalcogenide hosts with a large covalent bond nature. Thus, it is validated to predict site distribution and lifetime of rare-earth elements doped in chalcogenide glasses simply based on their mean coordination number.

Development of rare earth element-doped Ni–Ba(Ce/Zr)O3 cermets for hydrogen-permeable membranes

강우람,이기봉 한국공업화학회 2015 Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Vol.29 No.-

Substitution of the rare earth element in Ni–Ba(Ce/Zr)O3 cermets (i.e., ceramic-metal composites) isconsidered a promising method for improving their hydrogen permeability, which could potentiallyimprove the quality of cermet membranes. Microstructure and chemical properties of a rare earthelement-doped cermet strongly depend on the type and content of the rare earth element. In this study,Ni–BaCe0.5Zr0.3M0.2O3 (M = Er, Sm) cermets were prepared by a citrate–nitrate gel combustion method. Analyses based on X-ray diffraction, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersiveX-ray spectroscopy indicated that Er and Sm have rather different solubilities in the Ni–Ba(Ce/Zr)O3cermet and that when the amount of Sm exceeds the solubility limit, it reacts with the cermet, formingan impurity phase. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the substitution of rare earth dopants in Ni–Ba(Ce/Zr)O3 improved the chemical stability of the cermets against CO2 and that Ni–BaCe0.5Zr0.3Er0.2O3 ischemically more stable than Ni–BaCe0.5Zr0.3Sm0.2O3 below 670 8C.

ISO TC 298에서의 희토류 분야 표준화 현황과 우리나라의 전략 및 과제

엄누시아,사다르 아바스,무하마드 아닉,무하마드 자라르,이미혜,김범성,김택수,이빈,Eom, Nu Si A,Abbas, Sardar Farhat,Aneeq, Haq Muhammad,Zarar, Rasheed Mohammad,Lee, Mi Hye,Kim, Bum Sung,Kim, Taek-Soo,Lee, Bin 한국분말재료학회 (*구 분말야금학회) 2019 한국분말재료학회지 (KPMI) Vol.26 No.3

Since the ISO decided to deal with rare-earth elements at the $298^{th}$ Technical Committee (TC) in 2015, Korea has participated in four plenary meetings and proposed four standards as of June 2019. The status of ISO TC 298, the standards covered by the TC, and the standardization strategies of Korea are summarized. Korean delegations are actively engaged in WG2, which deals with recycling, proposing four standards for fostering the rare-earth recycling industry. However, the participation of domestic experts is still low compared with the increase in the number of working groups and the number of standards in TC 298. The aim of this article is to summarize the current status of ISO international standards related to rare-earth elements, to encourage relevant experts to participate in standardization, and to develop international standards that accurately reflect the realities of the industry.