국제항공우주재판소의 설립 가능성

김두환 ( Doo Hwan Kim ) 한국항공우주정책·법학회 2009 한국항공우주정책·법학회지 Vol.24 No.2

The idea of establishing an International Court of Air and Space Law (hereinafter referred to ICASL) is only my academic and practical opinion as first proposal in the global community. The establishment of the International Court of Air and Space Law can promote the speed and promote fairness of the trial in air and space law cases. The creation of an ICASL would lead to strengthening of the international cooperation deemed essential by the global community towards joint settlement in the transnational air and space cases, claims and would act as a catalyst for the efforts and solution on aircraft, satellite and space shuttle`s accidents and cases and all manpower, information, trial and lawsuit to be centrally managed in an independent fashion to the benefit of global community. The aircraft, satellite and spacecraft`s accidents attributes to the particular and different features between the road, railway and maritime`s accidents. These aircraft, satellite and spacecraft`s accidents have incurred many disputes between the victims and the air and space carriers in deciding on the limited or unlimited liability for compensation and the appraisal of damages caused by the aircraft`s accidents, terror attack, satellite, space shuttle`s accidents and space debris. This International Court of Air and Space Law could hear any claim growing out of both international air and space crash accidents and transnational accidents in which plaintiffs and defendants are from different nations. This alternative would eliminate the lack of uniformity of decisions under the air and space conventions, protocols and agreements. In addition, national courts would no longer have to apply their own choice of law analysis in choosing the applicable liability limits or un-limit for cases that do not fall under the air and space system. Thus, creation of an International Court of Air and Space Law would eliminate any disparity of damage awards among similarly situated passengers and shippers in nonmembers of air and space conventions, protocols, agreements and cases. Furthermore, I would like to explain the main items of the abovementioned Draft for the Convention or Statute of the International Court of Air and Space Law framed in comparison with the Statute of the International Court of Justice, the Statue of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and the Statute of the International Criminal Court. First of all, in order to create the International Court of Air and Space Law, it is necessary for us to legislate a Draft for the Convention on the Establishment of the International Court of Air and Space Law. This Draft for the Convention must include the elected method of judges, term, duty and competence of judge, chambers, jurisdiction, hearing and judgment of the ICASL. The members of the Court shall be elected by the General Assembly and Council of the ICAO and by the General Assembly and Legal Committee of the UNCOPUOS from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the six continent (the North American, South American, African, Oceania and Asian Continent) and two international organization such as ICAO and UNCOPUOS. The members of the Court shall be elected for nine years and may be re-elected as one time. However, I would like to propose a creation an International Court of Air and Space Law in extending jurisdiction to the International Court of Justice at the Hague to in order to decide the air and space convention`s cases. My personal opinion is that if an International Court on Air and Space Law will be created in future, it will be settled quickly and reasonably the difficulty and complicated disputes, cases or lawsuit between the wrongdoer and victims and the injured person caused by aircraft, satellite, spacecraft`s accidents or hijacker and terrorists etc. on account of deciding the standard of judgment by judges of that`s court. It is indeed a great necessary and desirable for us to make a new Draft for the Convention on a creation of the International Court of Air and Space Law to handle international air and space crash litigation. I shall propose to make a new brief Draft for the Convention on the Creation of an International Court of Air and Space Law in the near future.

Fifty Years of Outer Space Treaty: its retrospect and prospect

김한택 강원대학교 비교법학연구소 2017 江原法學 Vol.50 No.-

The 1967 Outer Space Treaty(OST) celebrates its 50th anniversary in 2017. This article deals with the OST's retrospect during the fifty years of the Treaty and its prospect in international law. Main subjects of this article focus on the followings: Freedom of Exploration and Scientific Research in Outer Space, Prohibition of National Appropriation, Application of International Law, Peaceful Use of Outer Space, Rescue and Return of Objects in Outer Space and Astronauts, International Responsibility for States’ Activities in Outer Space, Registration of Space Objects and Exclusive Jurisdiction, Respect for the Rights of Other States, Duty of Openness and Transparency in the OST. Because of the rapid development of space science and technology there is a need that there must be a new treaty instead of the OST for solving the current problems raised in the exploration and use of outer space. However, in retrospect of the fifty years of the OST some principles such as the freedom for exploration and scientific research in outer space, the principle of non-appropriation, and the principle of the respect of other countries’ rights in the OST have become customary law and jus cogens in international law. Furthermore the principles of global public interest in outer space in the OST imposes international obligations erga omnes applicable to all States. As customary international law, the OST reflects some rules that bind even those states who are not formal parties to the treaty itself. The present framework of space law incorporates a substantial body of rules in the form of treaties and sets of principles. In order to supplement the shortcomings of the space treaties there have been many soft laws such as recommendations, declarations and resolutions adopted by international organizations and regional communities. The OST represents the most fundamental and all-encompassing of the space treaties, and hence the foundation for all of space law. Thus the OST should be not only an international agreement of high importance as the constitution of outer space establishing rule of law in outer space, but also a manifesto of genuine expectations of all segments of mankind. It is therefore imperative that not only the letter but also the sprit of the OST govern space activities of States. Activities contrary to both the spirit and letter of the OST would shatter the belief in the rule of law and in the international democratic law-making process.

Fifty Years of Outer Space Treaty: its retrospect and prospect

Kim, Han Taek(김한택) 강원대학교 비교법학연구소 2017 江原法學 Vol.50 No.-

2017년은 1967년 우주조약이 탄생한지 50주년이 되는 해이다. 이 논문은 국제법상 우주조약의 50년에 대한 회고와 전망에 관한 연구인데, 그 세부적 내용은 우주의 자유이용과 과학적 연구의 자유, 우주의 비전유원칙, 국제법의 적용, 우주의 평화적 이용, 우주비행사와 우주물체의 구조와 반환, 우주활동의 국제책임, 우주물체의 등록과 배타적 관할권, 타국의 권리존중, 개방성과 투명성에 관한 주제에 관한 것이다. 우주과학과 기술의 발전으로 인하여 발생되는 현안 문제들을 해결하기에는 우주주약이 시대에 뒤처져 있어서 새로운 우주조약의 제정필요성을 강조하는 학자들도 있다. 그러나 우주에서의 탐사의 자유와 과학조사의 자유, 비전유원칙, 타국의 권리존중 등 우주조약에 내재된 조항들은 이미 국제관습법으로 발전되고 강행규범(jus cogens)의 성격을 지니게 되었고, 우주에서의 ‘전세계적 공공의 이익’ 원칙들(principles of global public interest)은 모든 국가에게 적용되는 대세적 의무(obligations erga omnes) 를 부과하고 있다. 우주활동이 ‘전세계적 공공의 이익’과 관련되어 있음을 뒷받침하는 사항들로서는 우주조약에서 우주를 모든 인류의 영역이라고 선언한 점, 우주에서의 협력의 의무, 우주비행사를 인류의 사절이라고 한 점, 우주활동에서 해로운 오염을 피하라고 한 점, 우주활동을 국가, 사적 실체 그리고 정부간 조직체(IGOs)로 제한한 점, 우주활동으로 인한 손해배상에 대한 절대책임원칙, 우주에서의 핵무기 및 대량파괴무기 배치 금지, 우주활동의 공개성과 투명성 그리고 국제우주제도의 보편적 적용 등을 들 수 있다. 이제 우주조약은 몇몇 조항들이 이 조약에 가입하지 않은 국가들도 구속하는 국제관습법을 내포한 조약으로 발전한 것이다. 또한 우주조약을 비롯한 우주관련조약의 미비점은 국제기구와 지역공동체에서 채택된 권고, 선언, 결의를 통하여 형성된 연성법(soft law)에 의하여 보충되고 있어서 국제우주법(international space law)이란 우주조약을 비롯한 우주관련 조약과 연성법으로 구성되어 있다고 할 수 있다. 우주조약은 우주관련조약 중 가장 근본적이고 포괄적인 조약으로 우주법의 기초를 형성하고 있다. 2017년 1월 현재 우주조약을 105개국이 비준하고 24개국이 서명하고 있는데 당사국은 미국, 러시아, 중국, 일본, 유럽우주기구(ESA) 회원국을 비롯한 우주선진국과 브라질, 인도 한국 등 신흥우주개발국 등이 참여하고 있어 우주조약은 범세계적 조약으로 발전하였다고 할 수 있다. 우주조약은 그야말로 우주의 법규칙을 제정하는 우주의 헌법으로서 전 인류의 진정한 기대의 표출이라고 할 수 있다. 따라서 국가들의 우주활동은 우주조약의 조문뿐 아니라 조약정신에 의하여 규율되는 것으로 이해되어야 하고, 우주조약의 조문과 정신에 어긋난 국가들의 행위는 국제공동체의 법규칙과 민주적 법제정절차를 위반하는 행동이라고 단언할 수 있을 것이다. 우주조약은 UN에서 제정된 조약 중 가장 성공적인 조약이라고 할 수 있다. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty(OST) celebrates its 50th anniversary in 2017. This article deals with the OST"s retrospect during the fifty years of the Treaty and its prospect in international law. Main subjects of this article focus on the followings: Freedom of Exploration and Scientific Research in Outer Space, Prohibition of National Appropriation, Application of International Law, Peaceful Use of Outer Space, Rescue and Return of Objects in Outer Space and Astronauts, International Responsibility for States’ Activities in Outer Space, Registration of Space Objects and Exclusive Jurisdiction, Respect for the Rights of Other States, Duty of Openness and Transparency in the OST. Because of the rapid development of space science and technology there is a need that there must be a new treaty instead of the OST for solving the current problems raised in the exploration and use of outer space. However, in retrospect of the fifty years of the OST some principles such as the freedom for exploration and scientific research in outer space, the principle of non-appropriation, and the principle of the respect of other countries’ rights in the OST have become customary law and jus cogens in international law. Furthermore the principles of global public interest in outer space in the OST imposes international obligations erga omnes applicable to all States. As customary international law, the OST reflects some rules that bind even those states who are not formal parties to the treaty itself. The present framework of space law incorporates a substantial body of rules in the form of treaties and sets of principles. In order to supplement the shortcomings of the space treaties there have been many soft laws such as recommendations, declarations and resolutions adopted by international organizations and regional communities. The OST represents the most fundamental and all-encompassing of the space treaties, and hence the foundation for all of space law. Thus the OST should be not only an international agreement of high importance as the constitution of outer space establishing rule of law in outer space, but also a manifesto of genuine expectations of all segments of mankind. It is therefore imperative that not only the letter but also the sprit of the OST govern space activities of States. Activities contrary to both the spirit and letter of the OST would shatter the belief in the rule of law and in the international democratic law-making process.

국제법 접근 방법으로서의 ‘세계행정법’(GAL) 개념에 대한 비판적 고찰

이기범 한양대학교 법학연구소 2022 법학논총 Vol.39 No.1

Discussion continues as to a new approach to international law called ‘Global Administrative Law’ (hereafter referred to as “GAL”). Some accepts the existence of a global administrative space, and then the concept of GAL incorporating some principles from domestic administrative law. Their contention is a challenge to the traditional approach to international law because it implies that the decision-making of international organizations would be more influential than treaties or customary international law, and that individuals or NGOs could be considered the subjects of international law, as main actors in international law-making. Supporters for the concept of GAL contend that the decision-making process of one international organization would be gone through undemocratically refusing any participation of individuals or NGOs, and that the interests of individuals or civil society would then be put at risk. Though their support for the concept of GAL must be respected, it is regrettable that they do not suggest convincing reasons for the GAL system. The best method to govern the decision-making process of one international organization is to amend the constituent documents of the organization or to lay down guidelines by a decision-making organ within the organization. This is to utilize the existing international legal system, and then leads to the conclusion that the concept of GAL, which is a third international legal system, is not necessary. Nevertheless, it is true that there is a ‘global administrative space’ to which some principles having the character of domestic administrative law must be applied. Therefore, assuming that the dichotomy between international law and domestic law should be respected, the concept of GAL can subsist as a new approach to international law if the proponents of the GAL concept keep on conducting in-depth research in order for some principles of domestic administrative law to govern the decision-making process of one international organization. ‘세계행정법’(Global Administrative Law, 이하 ‘GAL’)이라 불리는 새로운 국제법 접근 방법에 대한 논의가 이어지고 있다. GAL 개념의 지지자들은 글로벌 행정 영역이 존재하며, 따라서 이러한 영역을 규율하기 위해 국내 행정법적 성격을 가지는 원칙들로 구성된 GAL 개념을 긍정한다. 이러한 견해는 조약이나 국제관습법이 아닌 국제기구의 의사결정이 미치고 있는 영향력을 강조하고, 국제입법의 주체를 개인 또는 NGO로 확장하기 때문에 기존 국제법 접근 방법에 대한 하나의 도전이라 할 수 있다. 특히 GAL 개념의 지지자들은 현재 국제기구의 의사결정이 개인 또는 NGO의 참여 없이 비민주적으로 이루어지고 있으며, 그러한 의사결정으로 인해 개인 또는 시민사회의 이익이 위험에 처해 있다고 주장한다. 그런데 GAL 개념의 지지자들의 독특한 시각은 존중되어야 하나 이들이 GAL이라는 새로운 법체계를 정립하기 위한 목적으로 기존 국제법 접근 방법에 비해 설득력 있는 근거를 제시하고 있다고 보기는 어렵다. 오히려 글로벌 행정을 수행하는 국제기구의 의사결정을 규율하는 가장 효과적인 방법은 그 국제기구의 설립조약을 개정하거나 그 국제기구의 의사결정을 통해 도입된 규칙 또는 지침 등을 이용하여 그 국제기구의 의사결정을 규율하는 것이다. 이는 기존 국제법체계를 활용하는 것이며, 이에 제3의 법체계인 GAL 개념은 필요하지 않다는 결론에 도달하게 된다. 하지만 국내 행정법적 성격을 가진 원칙들이 적용되어야 하는 ‘글로벌 행정 영역’이 존재하는 것은 사실이다. 따라서 국제법과 국내법이라는 이분법적 법체계를 존중하는 가운데 GAL 개념의 지지자들이 국내 행정법적 성격을 가진 원칙들이 실제로 국제기구의 의사결정을 규율할 수 있도록 정교한 연구를 깊이 있게 수행한다면 GAL 개념이 국제법 접근 방법으로서의 존재 의의를 유지할 수 있을 것이라 판단된다.

북한의 「우주개발법」 제정과 전략로켓

최은석 ( Choi Eun-suk ) 한국군사학회 2017 군사논단 Vol.90 No.-

In April 2013, North Korea established the 「Space Development Law」 as the thirteenth legislation of the Supreme People`s Assembly (SPA). The law was included in the 「DPRK Code (revised and enlarged edition) 」 issued by Pyeongyang Law Publisher in June 2016, and it was disclosed worldwide recently. The law is composed 23 provisions in total. The purpose of this legislation is to properly establish the institutions and order for space development, so as to contribute to improving economic development and people`s lives (Article 1 of the Law). In particular, it specifies space development with peaceful purposes by holding onto the principles of independence and self-reliance in space development (Article 3 of the Law), and North Korea founded the `North Korean Institute of Space` in June 2016 to encourage peaceful development and use of outer space. However, there is a considerable gap between North Korea`s continuous nuclear tests and military provocation with the long-range ballistic missile(LRBM), and its argument that satellites are launched for the purpose of space development. In other words, the 「Space Development Law」 of North Korea goes against space science and technologies that are under development along with the military space program implemented by the international society. In relation to the current legal system that prohibits arms races in space, North Korea has violated the written international law on disarmament in space and the international society joined for sanction against North Korea. Its right for peaceful space development is not accepted because launching a space launch vehicle installed with a satellite is likely to be regarded as a flight test to improve the LRBM technologies. Above all, North Korea should start complying with the international law and order related to space development and use, as specified in its own 「Space Development Law」.

The Future Challenges of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis

Kim, Han-taek(김한택) 강원대학교 비교법학연구소 2020 江原法學 Vol.60 No.-

이 논문은 국제우주법(Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis)의 미래과제에 관한 내용으로 우선 국제우주법의 lex lata (현재의 법)로서 우주관계 조약들과 결의, 선언, 지침 등 연성법(soft law)에 관하여 간략하게 살펴보았고, 국제우주법의 lex ferenda (있어야 할 법)로서 우주의 경계획정, 우주의 군사화 및 무기화, 우주광물채취, 우주폐기물, 우주여행 등에 관하여 살펴보았다. 우주공간의 경계획정 문제는 법률가가 해결해야 할 문제가 아니라 과학자가 데이터를 해석하고 계속적인 연구를 통해 결정해야 할 것이다. 또한 1967년 우주조약 제4조의 ‘우주공간의 평화로운 이용’에 관한 소련의 ‘비군사화’(non-militarization)와 미국의 ‘비침략성’(non-aggression)사이의 논쟁은 의미가 없다고 생각한다. 그 이유는 러시아(구 소련 포함)도 이미 미국과 마찬가지로 수많은 군사위성을 우주로 발사했기 때문이다. 우주공간에서의 무기 배치 방지에 관한 중국과 러시아의 조약안인 PPWT(Draft Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects)는 미국의 강력한 반대 때문에 조만간 해결되지 않을 것으로 보인다. 우주자원 채굴활동에 관한 한, 미국과 룩셈부르크에서 제정된 국내법은 많은 국가에서 곧 모델로 삼게 될 것이고 곧 유사한 법들이 채택될 것이다. 국가들이 ‘선착순원리’에 따라 달과 소행성을 포함한 다른 천체로 나아가 채굴활동을 할 것이기 때문에 국제사회는 국가들의 자원경쟁에서 채굴자원의 범위와 채굴기간을 규제하기 시작해야 할 것이다. 1979년 달협정의 실패를 고려하면, 총회에 의한 선언 및 결의와 같은 연성법을 사용하는 것이 더 바람직하다. 우주폐기물 문제와 관련하여, UN 우주폐기물 가이드라인은 새로운 연성법으로 작용할 수 있지만, 적어도 국가에게 더 강력한 메시지를 제공하기 위해서는 원칙 또는 선언으로 발전되어야 한다. 빠르게 성장하는 우주 관광 산업은 1967년 우주조약을 포함한 우주관련조약에서 다루지 못하고 있는 새로운 법적 규제가 필요하다. 우주관련조약들이 냉전시기 중에 만들어 졌기 때문에 우주활동분야에서 점차 국가 대신 국제기구와 민간기업의 역할이 증대되는 현실을 고려해 볼 때 새로운 조약 또는 조약의 개정을 준비해야 하는 것이 좋을 듯하다. This article addresses the present law and the future challenges of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis (International Space Law). The former will be explained by a brief overview of the treaties and soft law such as declarations and resolutions forming the lex lata (current law-the law as it exists) of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis. Future challenges will focus on major subjects such as Delimitation of Outer Space, Militarization & Weaponization of Outer Space, Space Mining Activities, Space Debris and Space Tourism creating the lex ferenda (future law-what the law should be) of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis. It is believed that the issue of space delimitation is not a matter to be solved by lawyers, but rather a decision to be made by scientists interpreting data and ongoing research. As for the militarization & weaponization of outer space, the debate between the Soviet Union’s ‘non-militarization’ and America’s ‘non-aggression’ for the ‘peaceful uses of outer space’ in the Art. IV of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is meaningless. Because Russia (including USSR) has already launched numerous military satellites into outer space as has the United States. China and Russia’s Draft Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects (PPWT) will not be resolved in the near future due to the U.S. strongly opposition. As far as space mining activities are concerned the U.S. and Luxembourg’s domestic laws will soon be modeled and adopted by many countries. The international community should start regulating the scope and duration of resource development in the resource competition of countries because states will go to the Moon and other celestial bodies including asteroids based on ‘first-come, first-served’ principle. Considering the failure of the Moon Agreement of 1979, it is more desirable to use a soft law such as a declaration and resolution by the General Assembly. With respect to the space debris issue, the UN Space Debris Guideline might serve as a new soft law, but at least it should be developed in principle or declaration to provide a stronger message to countries. The rapidly growing space tourism industry needs legal regulation not addressed in space related treaties including the Outer Space Treaty. Since space related treaties were created during the Cold War, new legislation or modernization of the treaties should be prepared in consideration of the reality of the role of international organizations and private companies instead of states in the space activities.

우주조약의 국제법적 의미에 관한 연구

김한택 ( Han Taek Kim ) 한국항공우주정책.법학회(구 한국항공우주법학회) 2013 한국항공우주정책·법학회지 Vol.28 No.2

필자는 우주조약의 국제법적 의미에 관하여 첫째, 우주활동의 법원칙선언조항, 둘째, 세부조약으로 발전한 조항 그리고 마지막으로 우주조약의 보완사항에 관한 최근 동향으로 분류하여 설명하였다. 1963년 12월 13일 UN총회의 ‘우주법선언’을 반영한 우주조약은 그 세부조약으로 1968년 구조협정, 1972년 책임협약, 1975년 등록협약을 제정하였다. 2013년 5월 기준으로 102개국이 가입하고 27개국이 서명한 우주조약은 그야말로 우주법의 ‘마그나 카르타’(Magna Carta) 내지는 우주의 헌법이라고 불릴 정도로 우주법의 가장 기본이 되는 원칙을 담고 있고, 특히 달과 다른 천체를 포함한 우주를 비전유원칙인 ‘국제공역’(res extra commercium)으로 선언함으로서 우주에 대한 영유권 문제를 종식시켰다는 점에서 큰 의미를 찾을 수 있다. 우주조약이 제정된지 반세기가 되어가는 시점에서 우주조약에서 규정하고 있는 조항 중 우주활동은 모든 국가들의 이익을 위한다는 원칙(제1조), 외기권 우주의 자유로운 탐사와 이용(제1조),전유화금지(제2조)와 타국의 권리존중(제9조)은 조약법은 물론 모든 국가들을 구속하는 국제관습법과 ‘강행규범’(jus cogens)으로까지 발전된 조항이라고 할 수 있다.특히 우주조약은 투명성과 개방성을 규범적으로 요구하고 있다. 이것은 우주활동이‘전세계적 공공 이익’(global public interest)과 관련되어 있음을 시사하고 있다. 이러한 우주에서의 ``전세계적 공공이익``에 대한 원리는 국제공동체에게 ``대세적 의무``(obligation erga omnes)를 부과하고 있는데, 우주를 모든 인류의 영역이라고 선언한점, 우주에서의 협력의 의무, 우주비행사를 인류의 사절이라고 한 점, 우주활동에서 해로운 오염을 피하라고 한 점, 우주활동을 국가, 사적 실체 그리고 정부간 조직체(IGOs)로 제한한 점, 우주활동으로 인한 손해배상에 대한 절대책임원칙, 우주에서의 핵무기 및 대량파괴무기 배치 금지, 우주활동의 공개성과 투명성 그리고 국제우주제도의 보편적 적용 등이 이를 뒷받침 해주고 있다.현재 우주조약의 해석을 두고 많은 논란이 있는 조항들이 있고 제정당시 예상 못했던 우주기술의 발달과 상업화로 인해 보충해야 할 주제도 많이 생겨나서 현재 COPUOS 내에서 1979년 달조약을 포함한 현행 우주관련 5개 조약의 지위검토를 법률 소위원회에 의제로 포함시킬 것을 제의하여 1998년 제37차 법률소위원회부터 정식으로 승인받아 현재까지 논의되고 있다. 그러나 필자는 ‘우주법선언’의 내용들이 이미 국제관습법으로 굳어 졌으며, 이를 거의 반영한 우주조약의 상당부분 조항들이 이제는 국제관습법화 되었고, 심지어는 강행규범(jus cogens)이 된 조항들도 있다는 면에서 우주조약의 성과는 국제법상 매우 큰 의미를 지녔다고 평가하고 싶다. 앞으로 우주조약 이외에 우주관련세부조약들로도 해결하지 못하는 분야들은 COPUOS나 UN을 통하여 보완적인 결의와 선언들로 계속 반영되어야 할 것이며 만일 별도의 조약제정이 불가능하다면 적당한 시기에 우주조약을 포함하여 세부조약의 개정을 통하여 또는 추가의정서를 만들어 보완하면 좋을 것이라고 생각한다. 우주조약은 그 개념들의 모호성 때문에 수많은 학자들로부터 비난을 받아왔지만 그럼에도 불구하고 계속 존속해 왔다는 사실을 간과해서는 안 될 것이다.현재 우주폐기물과 관련하여 “IADC 우주폐기물 경감 가이드라인”, COPUOS의“우주폐기물감축 가이드라인”, 세계국제법협회(ILA)의 “우주폐기물로 인한 피해로부 터 환경을 보호하기 위한 국제협약 초안” 등이 우주조약을 보완하고 있고, 분쟁해결에 관하여 세계국제법협회(ILA)가 1998년 타이페이(Taipei) 회의에서 채택한 “우주법분 쟁해결에 관한 협약안”을 제시한 바 있고, 2011년 중재재판소(PCA)가 “우주활동관련분쟁의 중재재판에 관한 선택규칙”을 제정하고, 2012년 우주활동관련 분쟁의 중재재판관을 새롭게 임명하였다는 점은 우주법이 계속 발전되어 가고 있다는 모습을 보여주고 있다. 한편 UNIDROIT(국제사법통일기구)에서는 우주자산의 구입 및 조달에 필요한 담보금 거래시 국제적으로 통일된 담보거래 규칙을 위한 “이동장비국제담보권협약에 대한 우주자산의정서”는 우주조약이 해결하지 못하고 있는 분야는 별도의 조약체결을 통하여도 보완되고 있다는 가능성을 보여주고 있는 것이다. 1967 Outer Space Treaty(Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies; OST) is a treaty that forms the basis of international space law. OST is based on the 1963 Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space announced by UNGA resolution. As of May 2013, 102 countries are states parties to OST, while another 27 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.OST explicitly claimed that the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies are the province of all mankind. Art. II of OST states that “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means”, thereby establishing res extra commercium in outer space like high seas. However 1979 Moon Agreement stipulates that “the moon and its natural resources are the Common Heritage of Mankind(CHM).” Because of the number of the parties to the Moon Agreement(13 parties) it does not affect OST. OST also established its specific treaties as a complementary means such as 1968 Rescue Agreement, 1972 Liability Convention, 1975 Registration Convention.OST bars states party to the treaty from placing nuclear weapons or any other weapons of mass destruction in orbit of Earth, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or to otherwise station them in outer space. It exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers,or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications. However OST does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit. China and Russia submitted Draft Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapon in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects(PPWT) on the Conference on Disarmament in 2008. USA disregarded PPWT on the ground that there are no arms race in outer space.OST does not have some articles in relation to current problems such as space debris, mechanisms of the settlement of dispute arising from state activities in outer space in specific way. COPUOS established “UN Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines”based on “IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines” and ILA proposed “International Instrument on the Protection of the Environment from Damage Caused by Space Debris” for space debris problems and Permanent Court of Arbitration(PCA)established “Optional Rules for Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Outer Space Activities” and ILA proposed “1998 Taipei Draft Convention on the Settlement of Space Law Dispute” for the settlement of dispute problems.Although OST has shortcomings in some articles, it is very meaningful in international law in considering the establishment of basic principles governing the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. OST established the principles governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space as customary law and jus cogens in international law as follows; the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind; outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States; outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.The principles of global public interest in outer space imposes international obligations erga omnes applicable to all States. This principles find significant support in legal norms dealing with following points: space activities as the “province of all mankind”; obligation to cooperate; astronauts as envoys of mankind; avoidance of harmful contamination; space activities by States, private entities and intergovernmental organisations; absolute liability for damage cauesd by certain space objects; prohibition of weapons in space and militarization of the celestial bodies;duty of openness and transparency; universal application of the international space regime.

The Future Challenges of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis

김한택 강원대학교 비교법학연구소 2020 江原法學 Vol.60 No.-

This article addresses the present law and the future challenges of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis (International Space Law). The former will be explained by a brief overview of the treaties and soft law such as declarations and resolutions forming the lex lata (current law-the law as it exists) of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis. Future challenges will focus on major subjects such as Delimitation of Outer Space, Militarization & Weaponization of Outer Space, Space Mining Activities, Space Debris and Space Tourism creating the lex ferenda (future law-what the law should be) of the Corpus Juris Spatialis Internationalis. It is believed that the issue of space delimitation is not a matter to be solved by lawyers, but rather a decision to be made by scientists interpreting data and ongoing research. As for the militarization & weaponization of outer space, the debate between the Soviet Union’s ‘non-militarization’ and America’s ‘non-aggression’ for the ‘peaceful uses of outer space’ in the Art. IV of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is meaningless. Because Russia (including USSR) has already launched numerous military satellites into outer space as has the United States. China and Russia’s Draft Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects (PPWT) will not be resolved in the near future due to the U.S. strongly opposition. As far as space mining activities are concerned the U.S. and Luxembourg’s domestic laws will soon be modeled and adopted by many countries. The international community should start regulating the scope and duration of resource development in the resource competition of countries because states will go to the Moon and other celestial bodies including asteroids based on ‘first-come, first-served’ principle. Considering the failure of the Moon Agreement of 1979, it is more desirable to use a soft law such as a declaration and resolution by the General Assembly. With respect to the space debris issue, the UN Space Debris Guideline might serve as a new soft law, but at least it should be developed in principle or declaration to provide a stronger message to countries. The rapidly growing space tourism industry needs legal regulation not addressed in space related treaties including the Outer Space Treaty. Since space related treaties were created during the Cold War, new legislation or modernization of the treaties should be prepared in consideration of the reality of the role of international organizations and private companies instead of states in the space activities.

Current Issues & Prospects of International Space Law

Zwaan, Tanja Masson Korea Society of Air Space Law and Policy 2010 한국항공우주정책·법학회지 Vol.25 No.1

This paper first gives a brief overview of the history of space law making in the international geopolitical context and recalls some of the main principles as elaborated in the framework of the United Nations. Next, several topics are discussed that will require the attention of space lawyers in the near future. They are the International Space Station, space debris, exploitation of space resources, space tourism, private property rights in space, and militarization and weaponization of space. The paper raises some questions in each of these areas that need to be addressed and concludes that the general legal framework for space activities under public international law as contained in the UN treaties is in place, and is sufficiently general and flexible to enable and encourage states to carry out space activities in an orderly manner. However, as demonstrated by the examples discussed in the paper, the time has come for the international community to agree on the further development of these general principles, starting perhaps with space debris, imminent 'new' uses of space such as space tourism, or some of the 'age old' issues such as the weaponisation of outer space that will continue to require our attention and vigilance. Whether such rules can be in the form of non binding guidelines, codes of conduct and the like, or should be embodied in solid legal instruments creating rights and obligations remains to be seen.

Current Issues & Prospects of International Space Law

( Tanja Masson Zwaan ) 한국항공우주정책·법학회 2010 한국항공우주정책·법학회지 Vol.25 No.1

This paper first gives a brief overview of the history of space law making in the international geopolitical context and recalls some of the main principles as elaborated in the framework of the United Nations. Next, several topics are discussed that will require the attention of space lawyers in the near future. They are the International Space Station, space debris, exploitation of space resources, space tourism, private property rights in space, and militarization and weaponization of space. The paper raises some questions in each of these areas that need to be addressed and concludes that the general legal framework for space activities under public international law as contained in the UN treaties is in place, and is sufficiently general and flexible to enable and encourage states to carry out space activities in an orderly manner. However, as demonstrated by the examples discussed in the paper, the time has come for the international community to agree on the further development of these general principles, starting perhaps with space debris, imminent `new` uses of space such as space tourism, or some of the `age-old` issues such as the weaponisation of outer space that will continue to require our attention and vigilance. Whether such rules can be in the form of non-binding guidelines, codes of conduct and the like, or should be embodied in solid legal instruments creating rights and obligations remains to be seen.