조선 전기 ‘격치’ 개념의 의미화

이행훈 ( Lee Haeng-hoon ) 한국철학사연구회 2018 한국 철학논집 Vol.0 No.58

『대학』 8조목의 하나인 격물치지는 유학의 공부론이자 정치의 출발점이다. 유학의 목표는 수기안민, 내성외왕으로 집약된다. 조선 전기격치 개념은 이를 위한 학문과 위정의 시초로서의 의미가 강조된다. 이는 유학이 국가 운영의 핵심적인 가치 체계로 자리하게 되면서, 불교에 의지해 국가를 운영하던 시스템의 일대 변환과 사상적 패러다임의 전환을 예비하는 것이었다. 인륜 규범을 정하고 사회를 질서 짓는 근거로 유학이 부상하면서 유학의 경세론적 특성이 두드러진 것도 이 시기였다. 조선조 내내 『대학연의』는 제왕의 학문과 정치의 모범으로 경연에서 강론되었고, 그 출발점으로 ‘격치’가 논의되었다. 한편 ‘격치’와 관련한 다양한 해석과 논변은 경학사상사적으로 정주 성리학이 조선 성리학으로 심화되는 과정을 여실히 보여준다. ‘격물’과 ‘물격’ 해석을 둘러싼 논변은 인식 주체와 대상의 문제를 넘어 리의 본질을 궁구하는 문제와 맞닿았고, 기호와 영남 유학을 가르는 분수령이 되었다. 다양한 해석과 논변에도 불구하고 앎과 실천을 통합하는 유학의 공부론은 인문학의 역할과 위상에 대한 우려의 목소리가 높은 시대에 하나의 실마리를 제공할 수 있을 것이다. 시장 논리에 내맡겨진 과학기술의 방향과 속도를 조절하는 데에 대학과 인문학의 역할은 오히려 강화되어야 하고, 학문의 궁극적인 목표를 재성찰함으로써 이러한 문제에 조금 더 다가갈 수 있기 때문이다. ‘Gyeokmulchiji’ (格物致知), coming to knowledge based on the investigation of things) is a starting point for any study and politics of Confucianism. Much emphasis was placed on the conception of ‘Gyeokchi’ as a root of every learning and adminstration in the early Joseon period. As Confucianism established itself as a salient value system of the government, a mighty change and paradigm shift happened in its governmental system which had depended upon Buddhism up to that time. Thus, Confucian statecraft also stood out. Daehakyeonui (大學衍義) was preached as a model of regal learning and politics in the governmental agon, and its conceptual starting point was ‘Gyeokchi.’ The various interpretations and arguments about this concept shows the process in which Zhu Xi Neo-Confucianism was deepened into Neo-Confucianism of Joseon’s own. This conception reached the essence of ‘Li’ beyond the problem of cognitive subject and object, and provided a watershed which divided Giho (畿湖) and Yeongnam (嶺南) schools. Confucian method of study, which incorporates knowledge and practice, has great implications for our times when there are many voices of concern over humanities. The enhancement of universities and humanities is much needed to adjust the direction and pace of scientific technology, which is now entirely left with the logic of market. Accordingly, it is quite urgent for us to examine our object of learning again, which should integrate ‘Sugi’ (修己, cultivating oneself) with ‘Chi-in’ (治人, governing others), and knowledge with practice.

1900년대 전후 도덕 개념의 의미장 -수신,윤리교과서를 중심으로-

이행훈 ( Haeng Hoon Lee ) 한림과학원 2013 개념과 소통 Vol.0 No.12

Confucianism emphasizes the cultivation of virtue, but the discourses found in early 20th century textbooks, show both continuity and transformation in the semantic field concerning self-cultivation, morality or ethics. The changes presented in school textbooks around this time had been accelerated since the Gabo Reform, reflecting the “twisted space of experience” and “identifying strategies of the horizon of expectation”. In an analogous fashion to moving through space, assimilating new concepts brings about a shift in the space of experience, modulating and expanding expectations about what might be possible. Textbooks on self-cultivation or ethics are one of the key mechanisms through which a state can standardize the horizon of expectation. Moral training, once it escaped from the influence of Confucianism, with its focus on the revelation of one`s innate human nature, came to be connected with the public interest and identified with the needs of society and state. The foundations of moral training were shaken as the emphasis of the educational system was shifted from moral character to knowledge. In particular, the accommodation of imported concepts about ethics into East Asia markedly affected the semantic field concerning moral ideas. Thus, ‘Yuli (倫理)’, a translated term for ethics, restricted traditional selfcultivation to the area of practice, and also began to exclude self-cultivation from the educational process to conform with the rationalist approach of modern learning. As it was pushed out from the modern system of knowledge, the implications of the idea of self-cultivation dwindled until it signified nothing more than a nostalgic cultural yearning for the classics, and it disappeared gradually from everyday life. The concept of selfcultivation faded away into history, along with Confucianism for which it represented the essential virtue:both were swept away by the advent of modernity. In the school textbooks on self-cultivation or ethics published during the Korean Empire period, premodern and modern ethics were intermingled, but more weight was given to concepts which were relevant to society and the nation-state, and the moral conception implied by ‘Yuli (倫理)’ transformed the semantic field of ethics, and with it, national morality.

근대 전환기 유교 담론과 도학 개념의 역사적 의미론

이행훈 ( Haeng Hoon Lee ) 한림과학원 2012 개념과 소통 Vol.0 No.10

Confucianism had functioned as the scientific, cultural, social and political foundation of Joseon for a long time, but during the drastic transition period leading to modern times, its dominance was threatened by competition from new religions, including Christianity. Confucian intellectuals of the time, considering themselves responsible for the enlightenment of society and the progress of civilization, were immersed in a dispute between dongdoseogi(the principle of preserving Eastern philosophy while accepting Western technology) and singuhak(old and new learning). However, once Confucianism came to be considered the underlying cause of national ruination, they were compelled to face up to demands for its abolition or comprehensive reformation. With the Japanese pursuing colonialism in earnest, the principal focus of debate became the role of Confucianism in the movement for national independence. Support for ‘little’ Sinocentrism(小中華主義) was eclipsed by rising nationalistic sentiments, and the national role of Confucianism was challenged by pro-Japanese activities. Newspapers like Daedonghakhoewolbo(大東學會月報) and Korea Daily News(大韓每日申報) functioned as the public sphere in a modern way, carrying articles about various arguments concerning ‘Confucianism’, which, though not a new concept from the West, was striving to capture values for the future. The historical semantics of traditional concepts essentially calls into question the way in which existing concepts undergo semantic rupture and transformation and finally disappear from everyday language. While ``basic concepts`` promote the premodern into the modern, ``traditional concepts`` function as an element for social transformation, taking issue with the pace and direction of the transition to modernity. In this way, historical semantics can examine the process by which the movement of existing concepts stops and they cease to exist, and can thus contribute to a reappraisal of concepts which have disappeared into the empty space and time of history.

한국철학 : 양건식의 칸트철학 번역과 선택적 전유

이행훈 ( Haeng Hoon Lee ) 동양철학연구회 2011 東洋哲學硏究 Vol.66 No.-

Yang Geon-sik was a Buddhist activist and a novelist as well as a translator. The former researches on Yang was primarily focused on his literary works although Yang was one of the leading social thinker and scholar in the Korean enlightenment period. In this article, I illuminated Yang`s disciplines and ideas by analysing his translation of Kant, which was published in the translated article titled Western philosopher Kant`s gyeokchi theory(西哲康德格致學說). It should be noted that the philosophy of Kant accepted via Japan and China in Korean in the 1910s through the East Asian distribution channels of Western philosophy. The original author of the article was Ryang Chi-chaoh. During his exile in Japan, Ryang wrote the article titled the best modern philosopher, Kant`s theory(近世第一大哲 康德之學說). Ryang`s article was a translation of a part of the philosophy of history(理學沿革史) written by Nagaechomin in Japan. To compare the concept of ``Zhenru(眞如)``of Buddhism with the concept of ``Zhenwo(眞我)`` of Kant, and ``Mingde(明德)`` of Zhuxi, Yang admitted the predominance of Buddhism and Buddhist tradition by recognizing that the universal values of a modern system could be reconfigured. Yang Geon-sik`s translation series went along with the Buddhism promotion movement. Yang Geon-sik lived in an era that evolution and development were supposed as an overall social indicators. However, he gave a great focus on Buddhism and literature to discover the possibility of transcendence. For Yang, transcendence was not a notion to escape into abstractness but a notion to recall the value of life by rediscovering the human inner nature which was repressed by capitalism and the civilization base on materialism. Yang`s work is an important which is not only a source that can reveal the characteristics of Korean modernity but also a stimulant that can enrich the history of modern Korean philosophy.

한국철학 : 최한기의 경학관과 『사서(四書)』해석

이행훈 ( Haeng Hoon Lee ) 동양철학연구회 2006 東洋哲學硏究 Vol.45 No.-

최한기(崔漢綺)의 운화론적 사회관

이행훈 ( Haeng Hoon Lee ) 동양철학연구회 2005 東洋哲學硏究 Vol.43 No.-

번역된 “철학” 개념의 수용과 전유

이행훈 ( Haeng Hoon Lee ) 동양철학연구회 2013 東洋哲學硏究 Vol.74 No.-

The object of this essay is to consider the aspects of the process in which Korea accepted and appropriated the concept of philosophy in its modern transition period. Modern learning in Korea was formed by Western learning and concepts which were accepted via China and Japan before and after the 20th century. This new system of knowledge, however, could not confine the traditional Confucian system of knowledge entirely to the past. At the beginning of the acceptance, the conceptual definition of philosophy was obliged to rely on the traditional academic terms, and the understanding of Western philosophy could not but be conducted within the traditional mode of thought. This is evident in the fact that Western philosophy was described as Western Confucianism and a variety of Confucian academic terms were used to translate the concept of philosophy. Traditional terms like ‘Gyeokchi(格致)’, ‘Gungri(窮理)’, ‘Seongri(性理)’, ‘Yihak(理學)’, ‘Yuhak(儒學)’, ‘Dohak(道學)’ and others were used to translate the term of philosophy. For this point, we can consult the article of philosophy in a bilingual dictionary published at the early part of the modern times. Until the concept of ``philosophy`` was established, its description and definition had depended mostly upon the traditional system of knowledge. Although a few examples existed in which ``philosophy`` was introduced and defined before 1900, they considered it not as universal learning but as a special learning which had developed in the West. It was around 1910 that Confucianism was conceived as one branch of modern learning and part of modern system of knowledge. Jang Ji-yeon was content just with defining and introducing philosophy, while Choi Du-seon analyzed, from various angles, the nature of philosophy distinguished from the other disciplines. At the beginning of the acceptance of Western philosophy, it was understood from the perspective of Confucian thought as in Lee Jeong-jik and Lee In-jae`s understanding, but gradually, its understanding advanced towards re-interpreting Confucianism and traditional philosophy through the concept and mode of Western Philosophy. This development makes us pay more attention to the addresser`s activeness and independence in the structure of addresser and addressee. Gang Chun-san`s『東洋道學의 體系如何』(Genealogy of Oriental Knowledge System) was the first ``history of Eastern philosophy``, which described equally Hundred Scholars of Thought(諸子百家) in a syntactic frame. Positive aspects of the addressee are evident in An Hwak`s『朝鮮哲學思想槪觀』(An Outline of Korean Philosophy), which makes a general survey of Korean history of thought. The reality of ``importer philosophy`` has hardly changed, though there has been an increasingly loud call for self-examination against the academic climate in which many bow to the West. It is not easy to change our perspective which has been stamped and fixed for over a hundred years. The traditional philosophy also has not found any possible point of communication with modern philosophy, and its discontinuous continuity was endured. To dissolve the antagonism of philosophy exposed to ``the past of the present`` like this, it is more than necessary to reconstruct ``the present of the past``. Furthermore, we will be able to conceive the whole story of Korean thought in the modern transitional period beyond a kind of estrangement and distortion which appeared in the formation of Korean modern philosophy only when our focus is placed not on the viewpoint of the addresser but on the activeness of the addressee.

최한기의 기화적 문명관

이행훈 ( Haeng Hoon Lee ) 한국사상사학회 2004 韓國思想史學 Vol.0 No.22

안확의 `조선` 연구와 문명의 발견

이행훈 ( Lee Haeng-hoon ) 한국철학사연구회 2017 한국 철학논집 Vol.0 No.52

1920년대 조선사편수회를 비롯해 조직적으로 진행된 일제의 조선사 연구는 조선의 식민화를 영구화하려는 획책이었다. 3ㆍ1운동 이후 일제가 내건 문화정치 3대 방안 가운데 하나인 `민족성 개조`도 조선의 역사성을 외래성과 식민성, 당파성과 미개성으로 낙인찍은 식민주의의 소산이었다. 이에 저항하는 조선인의 연구는 조선의 고유성과 독자성을 증명하는 전통의 창조로 나아갔다. 1920년대 들어 활발해진 고대사 연구는 식민 현실을 외면하고 관념화된 과거의 역사 기억으로 도피하는 게 아니라 한민족의 역사를 새롭게 구성하는 일이었다. 이때 단군은 민족 공동의 시원으로서 문화적 동일화를 이끌며, 발명된 민족의 정체성은 상처 입은 주체를 치유하는 것이었다. 신화를 역사의 일부로 이끌어 오는 일련의 시도는 안확에서도 발견된다. 조선의 민족성을 서구 문명국가와 비교해도 우수한 장점을 지닌 것으로 표명하였고, 조선 문화의 특수성과 정체성을 보편 문명사로 정립하는 방대한 기획은 『조선문명사』로 나타났다. 조선 민족의 특수성과 정체성을 규명하는 문화 연구와 조선 민족의 저력을 드러낸 통사 기술은 과거 역사 속에 명멸했던 다양한 주체들을 동일한 역사를 공유하는 단일한 민족으로 상상하게 했다. 안확의 조선 연구는 일제의 식민사관에 대한 저항이자 민족적 자각을 통한 웅비를 염원하는 것이었다. 그는 민족주의적 관점을 견지하면서도 자유와 자치, 자율과 이성 위에 선 개인을 문명과 문화를 만드는 주체로 설정함으로써 국가이데올로기로 고착된 일본의 문화사와 길을 달리 했다. The systematic research on the Joseon history under Japanese imperialism in the 1920s, including that of the Joseon History Compilation Committee, was one of the stratagems that Japan employed to perpetuate the colonization of Joseon. The `renovation of national traits`, one of the three cultural measures taken by Japanese imperialism after the 1919 Independence Movement, was an attempt to degrade Joseon`s nationality as extraneous, dependent, factional, and uncivilized. Against this, Koreans tried to create their own tradition that could prove Joseon`s uniqueness and independence. The purpose of their study on ancient history, which became animated in the 1920s, was not to escape from the reality of Joseon into the idealized past, but to construct the history of Korean people anew. In this context, Dangun could refer to cultural identity as the communal origin of the nation, and this invented identity could lead to the healing of the injured subject. An Hwak`s attempt was part of this efforts to call out myth as history. He suggests that Joseon`s national traits are superior even to the Western civilization in several ways, and his vast plan to set up Joseon`s cultural uniqueness and identity as history of universal civilization bore fruit in the History of Joseon Civilization. With cultural research for figuring out Joseon`s national peculiarity and identity and historiography for revealing Joseon`s national potential, he makes it possible for people to imagine various agents in the Joseon`s past as belonging to a single nation with an identical history. Through his study on Joseon, he fought back the Japanese colonial view of history and tried to exalt national consciousness. Asserting independent and rational individuals as agency of civilization and culture though firm in the national perspective, he eventually went a way quite different from that of Japanese history of culture.

개념의 수행성으로 본 근대 지식체계의 굴절 - 도학, 실학, 철학을 중심으로 -

이행훈 ( Lee Haeng-hoon ) 한국철학사연구회 2020 한국 철학논집 Vol.0 No.64

동아시아 유교문화권에서 학문적 정통과 이단을 가늠하는 준거였던 ‘도학’과 ‘실학’ 개념이 20세기 근대 전환기에 들어서 일으킨 의미 변화는 전통 지식체계의 탈구축 과정을 탐색하는 데 유용한 사례다. 송대 주희 이후 도학은 유교의 도통을 잇고 이학과 심학의 강한 실천을 표상하는 용어로 재발명되었다. 불교에 대해 ‘실학’으로서 위상을 확립했던 유학은 근대 전환기 서양 학술과 경쟁해야 하는 상황에 내몰렸다. 국가 사회의 운영원리였던 유교가 망국을 초래한 원인으로 부정되는 사이 서양학술은 단순한 기예에서 새로운 문명 건설을 가능하게 할 학문으로 위세를 더해갔다. 문명 진보의 신화는 전통 지식체계의 ‘도학’과 ‘실학’ 개념에도 변화를 일으켰다. 인륜 도덕을 최우선의 가치로 추구했던 도학은 급변하는 세계정세를 인식하지 못한 채 구습만을 고집하는 완고의 대명사가 되었다. 유교가 지녔던 실학으로서의 위상도 점차 서양 신학문에 자리를 내주고 말았다. 번역어 철학은 본래 서양의 ‘유학’을 동방의 유학과 구별하기 위한 용어로 고안되었으나 점차 전통 지식체계를 철학으로 재해석하면서 특정한 의미를 전유하는 한편 배제를 수행했다. 서양의 특수한 학문이었던 철학이 보편적 가치를 지닌 것으로 인식된 데에는 이러한 사정이 주효했다. 실학 개념을 전유하려는 유교개혁론과 문명개화론의 경쟁은 개념 수용 초기 철학 의미망의 불완전성을 드러내는 한편 개념이 시대의 요구를 반영하면서 변화한다는 점을 보여준다. 근대 지식체계 형성과정에서 철학이 전통 지식체계를 재해석하는 틀로 기능하면서, 유학은 동양철학과 조선철학의 의미망 안에서 의미 지어졌다. 현재까지 이어지고 있는 실학 개념을 둘러싼 학술사적 논쟁도 근대 지식체계 변화와 개념의 수행성에 주목할 이유가 여기에 있다. Dohak used to be an important yardstick in determining academic legitimacy and praising or criticizing people, but it gradually came to represent outdated ideas and stubborn scholars who held onto old ways. 'Dohak scholars' who had referred to those intellectuals who studied moral values of Confucianism and practiced them was now degraded to a derogatory expression pointing to those old-fashioned people who failed to keep pace with changes of the times as they were apathetic to new learning and ideologies in favor of moral goodness in a selfish manner. On the other hand, Silhak which used to mean Confucianism criticizing emptiness and non-secularity of Buddhism and Taoism, saw its meaning changed to the one referring to the Western civilization and scientific technologies. As a way to respond to shocks from the Western civilization, some incomplete combinations of the two cultures, East and West, were attempted such as Chinese culture as central and Western culture as useful or Eastern morals and Western technologies. But Silhak came to serve as a catalyst to accept new learning. What lessons could we learn from the two different paths Dohak an Silhak took at the dawn of the modern era? Just about a hundred years ago amid epistemological rupture and shift occurring, scholars who studied traditional philosophies crying for 'no morals, no state' vanished into obscurity and were forgotten without leaving an echo of their voice behind. In reality where economic strength equals national power and also works as a measure to judge a person, a 'rogue country' that should be denounced is often envied by other countries. There is nothing wrong about pursuing practicality and usefulness, but the reality where practicality trumps humanity and is treated as the ultimate goal in life should be stemmed. In this modern world, evolutionism and survival of the fittest are being taken for granted, leading to a situation that if you win the competition, you can take happiness away from the social disadvantaged and minority to reap all the benefits, and this kind of competition first theory is being recreated over and over again. We should carefully watch if balance can be struck to make sure that human accomplishments achieved in the modern age will not be wiped out. This is why we need to examine how traditional thinking has been dismantled and the concepts have been modified as much as we do for movements of new concepts flowed in from the West and the resulting social and structural changes brought about by the new concepts.