명청시대사 연구의 동향과 전망

曺永憲(Cho Young-hun) 역사학회 2008 역사학보 Vol.0 No.199

중국 대운하의 역사 기억과 세계문화유산 등재

조영헌 ( Cho¸ Young-hun ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2022 사총 Vol.105 No.-

장구한 역사를 가진 중국의 대운하 물류 시스템은 사실상 19세기 후반기에 막을 내렸다. 이후 1세기 이상 방치되어 있던 대운하가 2014년 6월 22일 카타르 도하에서 열린 제38회 유네스코 세계문화유산 위원회에서 세계문화유산으로 등재되었다. 세계문화유산에 등재되기 위해서는 기본적으로 ‘탁월한 보편적 가치(Outstanding Universal Value, OUV)’를 부각하는 동시에, 얼마나 그 문화적 가치가 잘 보존되어 있으며 앞으로 어떻게 관리해나갈 것인지에 대한 증명이 이루어져야 한다. 이른바 진정성(integrity)과 완전성(authenticity), 보호 및 관리 체계(protection and management requirements)에 대한 요건을 충족해야 하는 것이다. 그렇다면 지난 1세기 이상 방치되었던 대운하가 2014년에 세계문화유산으로 등재될 수 있었던 이유는 무엇이고 중국 정부는 이를 통해 무엇을 기대했을까? 이는 직접적으로 세계문화유산 등재 프로젝트가 본격적으로 가동된 2006년 이후의 상황 변화와 관련이 깊겠지만, 이러한 프로젝트가 가능할 수 있었던 역사적 배경에 대한 고찰도 필요하다. 특별히 대운하가 물자 유통로로서의 기능을 상실했던 19세기 이후부터 다시 이에 대한 또 다른 중요성에 주목하게 된 21세기 초기까지, 대운하에 대한 인식전환이 발생하게 된 과정과 계기를 주목할 필요가 있다. 즉 조운(漕運) 기능이 사라진 이후 대운하의 기능과 보존에 대한 인식전환이 발생하는 과정을 역사적 맥락 속에서 정리해보는 것이 본고의 목적이다. 이를 위해 간략하게 대운하의 역사를 정리하고, 조운 기능이 사라진 19세기 이후 대운하의 기능이 파편화되는 과정을 살펴본 후, 1949년 중화인민공화국 성립 이후 대운하에 새롭게 부여된 2가지 기능과 함께 21세기에 진입한 직후 세계문화유산으로 등재되어 활용되는 배경까지 검토하였다. The long-standing logistics system of China's Grand Canal actually ended in the late 19th century. The Great Canal, which had been neglected for more than a century, was listed as a World Heritage Site at the 38th UNESCO World Heritage Committee held in Doha, Qatar on June 22, 2014. In order to be listed as a World Heritage Site, it must basically emphasize "Outstanding Universal Value (OUV)" while proving how well its cultural value is preserved and how it will be managed in the future. The requirements of integrity, authenticity, protection and management requirements must be met. So why did the Grand Canal, which had been neglected for more than a century, be listed as a World Heritage Site in 2014 and what did the Chinese government expect from it? This will be directly related to the change in the situation since 2006, when the World Heritage listing project began in earnest, but it is also necessary to consider the historical background behind the project. Therefore, this paper aims to find out the meaning and various intentions behind the 2014 World Heritage listing, analyzing the process of changing awareness of the function and preservation of the Grand Canal in terms of "history memory" and long-term historical context. Chapter 2 summarizes the history of three changes in memory of the Grand Canal, and Chapter 3 examines the process of forming a fourth image of the Grand Canal as the function of ‘caoyun’ has been fragmented since the 19th century. In Chapter 4, I examined how the two functions newly assigned to the Grand Canal changed the fourth image since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. In Chapter 5 and the conclusion, the possibility of the success of the new fifth historical memory, which was formed when it was registered as a World Heritage Site, is examined.

대륙 문명과 해양 문명의 접점 베이징과 접선 대운하

曺永憲 ( Cho Young-hun ) 명청사학회 2022 명청사연구 Vol.- No.58

This article identifies Beijing, the capital city of late Imperial China for about 800 years, as the junctional point of the two spatial civilizations, the continent and the maritime, and attempts to re-examine the Grand Canal, the transportation route of Beijing, as the connecting line to the continent and the maritime civilization. As for the time frame, the Yuan-Ming-Qing dynasties, in which Beijing performs the function of the Capital of whole area and the dynamics of the Grand Canal are remarkably expressed, were used as the basic analysis period. In this article, I tried to modify the existing view that Beijing was regarded as a city of continental civilization. Until now, many scholars have not paid much attention to the fact that Beijing was not a self-sufficient city, that is, Beijing was a city that could not survive unless it was linked to the Grand Canal. However, since Beijing was created and maintained by connecting with the Grand Canal, which is based on “connectivity,” the vitality of ocean continued to be added to the continental city of Beijing. The Grand Canal played not only the integration between the north and south China, but also the role of a connecting line connecting the maritime civilization through the Jiangnan route connecting Hangzhou and Suzhou, Ningpo route connecting Zhedong Canal and Zoushan islands, and Tianjin route connecting the Gulp of Pohai. The Grand Canal has made Beijing, which was born on the basis of continental civilization, the junctional point between continental and maritime civilization. After all, Beijing can be described as follows in the history of civilization. “Beijing is a port. It is a port that leads to pasture and continents and connects to the sea through the Grand Canal.”

후기 중화제국(中華帝國) 해양사(海洋史) 연구의 최근 흐름과 글로벌 히스토리 -중등 역사 교과서에 대한 제언-

조영헌 ( Cho Young-hun ) 고려대학교 민족문화연구원 2017 民族文化硏究 Vol.77 No.-

본고는 중화제국 후기(明과 淸 왕조 시기)의 해양사에 대한 대략 2000년 이후에 두드러진 연구 성과를 소개하면서, 이처럼 해양에 대해 변화하는 관점을 한국의 역사교과서, 특히 고등학교 <세계사>와 <동아시아사>에 어떻게 반영하는 것이 적절한 것인가에 대한 제언을 모색하였다. 최근 중국 명청시대 해양사에 대한 연구가 새롭게 주목받는 이유는 정화의 항해 600주년(2005)과 해양대국으로 발돋움 하려는 중국 정부의 노력(최근 ‘一帶一路’ 정책의 구상까지)이라는 현실적·정치적 요인이 중요하지만, 역사학계의 난제와 이를 풀어보려는 새로운 시도와도 관련이 깊다. 본고는 이러한 학계의 흐름을 ‘유럽중심주의에 대한 반격’, 정화 이후 중국의 해금정책에 대한 성격 규명, ‘early modern’ 논쟁에서 해양 인식, 그리고 새로운 ‘글로벌 히스토리’의 대두로 정리하였다. 이는 필자가 오랜 시간 관심을 기울이고 있는 “명청시대 중국은 왜 해양으로의 진출을 주저했는가”라는 질문에 대한 답변을 준비하는 과정이자, 해양에 대한 전향적인 인식 변화가 한국의 고등 역사교과서에 어떻게 담겨야 후속세대의 역사인식에 긍정적으로 기여할 것인지에 대한 모색이기도 하다. This article mainly deals with recent trend and new perspectives of maritime history in late imperial China and suggests how we can apply these trend and new perspectives in history textbooks of high school, especially < World History > and < East Asian History >. Why does maritime history in late imperial China receive the worldwide attention recently? There are two big backgrounds. From the practical and political perspectives, this trend is related with both the coincidence that the year of 2005 is the 600 years anniversary of Zhenghe expedition and the powerful endeavor of Chinese government to be a maritime powers. And, from the historical academic perspectives, this is very closely related with important issues such as the reaction against euro-centrism, how to interpretate the maritime ban policy after Zhenghe expedition, ‘early modern’ controvercy, and global history.

원ㆍ명ㆍ청 시대 首都 북경과 陪都의 변천

조영헌(Cho Young-hun) 역사학회 2011 역사학보 Vol.0 No.209

Although Beijing remained the primary capital throughout Late Imperial China, auxiliary capitals had shifted continuously from one dynasty to another. Shangdu in the Yuan, Nanjing in the Ming, and Chengde and Shengjing in the Qing each played the role of auxiliary capital for the respective dynasties. This fact brings up a number of questions regarding the relationship between primary and auxiliary capitals. First, what correlation did the location and role of the auxiliary capital have with the primary capital of Beijing? Second, did the change of ruling ethnicities and heads of state trigger changes in the administrative methods of both the primary and auxiliary capitals? Third, if so, what similarities and differences can we find between not only the northern clans and the Han Chinese but also between the Mongol and the Manchu in their respective methods of administration of the imperial capital? This paper seeks to synthesize the results of existing researches on the above points of interest and to firmly identify the changes in the primary capital of Beijing and the auxiliary capitals. There will be a general depiction of the interrelations between changes of auxiliary capitals and changes in the dominant ethnicity of each dynasty.

15세기 한중 관계사

曺永憲(Cho, Young-Hun) 동양사학회 2017 東洋史學硏究 Vol.140 No.-

This article mainly deals with 15<SUP>th</SUP> century’s sino-korean relations based on recent research as a founding stone for comprehensive reexamination of sino-korean relationship from 15<SUP>th</SUP> century to 19th century. In the beginning of 15<SUP>th</SUP> century, going through the chaotic and turbulent period of the latter of 14<SUP>th</SUP> century, so called ‘Ming Order’ which had functioned as a basic framework for Ming-Choson relationship was established. The sino-korean relationship was very closely linked with China(Yuan and Ming)’s external policy and international change of relationships, so the extent of this relation’s change around 1400 was an unprecedented level. Therefore we have no choice but to pay attention to international relationships in which China played a central role first in order to fully understand Korea-China relations during 15<SUP>th</SUP> century. For this purpose, this article at first described the wholistic big picture of East Asian world. Second, I try to embody the detail of sino-korean relationship which was constantly connected with international relations. At last, I manage to reshape the sino-korean relations through several and comprehensive perspectives of korea-japan relations and sino-japan relations. Ming china exercised her political influence mainly through the ritual protocol toward neighboring countries such as Korea, Annam, which was totally different way of method with Mongol’s world order or Yuan system. At the same time, influential Ming emperors, especially Hongwu and Yongle, reestablished traditional, powerful, and monistic tributary system. This system conveys the idea, “Hua-yi yi jia”, which means that northern Yi(barbarian) and southern Hua(Chinese people) were unified as one family. This idea was completely the legacy of Yuan experience. Given such continuity and change of east asian history, ‘special relationship’ rather than ‘typical relationship’ should be more suited for describing the 15<SUP>th</SUP> century sino-korean relations as they were.

康熙帝와 徽商의 遭遇

曺永憲(Cho Younghun) 동양사학회 2006 東洋史學硏究 Vol.97 No.-

‘17세기 위기론’과 중국의 사회 변화

조영헌(Cho, Young Hun) 역사비평사 2014 역사비평 Vol.- No.107

If the 17th century crisis is relevant to the fall of the Ming, then the progression of the crisis can be seen as the flash point for the Ming"s destruction. What factors led to the collapse of the Ming dynasty? The reasons are many and varied; the emperor"s lack of competence, bureaucratic corruption and factionalism, peasants" revolt, invasion of foreign forces, spread of infectious disease, lack of an influx of silver, abnormal climate change. This paper examines the 17th century crisis from a global perspective. In particular, it focuses on two factors, the lack of silver and abnormal climate change, and recent research on these is analyzed. This paper confirms that both factors were important at the beginning of the 17th century; between the late 1630s and early 1640s, they operated simultaneously and intensively, and exacerbated the many existing unstable situations. This finally led to a tipping point that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty. Clearly, although many other factors beyond climate change can be included in the narrative of Ming dynasty collapse, change in the silver trade from the global historical perspective, for example, is also a critical issue. As long as global history avoids climate determinism, global history requires a broader view of nature, humans, and their coexistence and cooperative dynamics. Therefore, global historical perspective and its research methods require further development.

명말(明末),청초(淸初) 선당(善堂),선회(善會)와 휘주상인(徽州商人) : 회(淮),양지역(揚地域) 운하도시(運河都市)를 중심으로

조영헌 ( Young Hun Cho ) 중국사학회 2007 中國史硏究 Vol.47 No.-

서평 : 『 명청시기 태호유역적 상품경제 여시장 망락 』( 조영현 명청사연구 2002 )

조영헌(Young Hun Cho) 명청사학회 2002 명청사연구 Vol.16 No.1

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