정신장애인을 위한 재활동기 강화 프로그램의 효과성에 관한 연구

이은경 대구대학교 2013 국내석사

정신장애인의 동기가 재활성과에 중요한 변인이라는 주장에도 불구하고 구체적인 실천방안에 대한 연구와 정신장애인의 동기와 관련하여 초이론적 모델과 동기강화상담 원리를 적용한 프로그램의 효과성 연구는 부족한 실정이다. 따라서 본 연구는 초이론적 모델과 동기강화상담 원리를 활용한 재활동기 강화 프로그램을 정신장애인에게 적용하여 그 효과성을 검증함으로써 정신장애인의 재활동기 향상을 위한 개입 방안을 제시하기 위한 것이었다. 본 연구는 D시에 위치한 사회복귀시설을 이용하고 있는 정신장애인을 대상으로 실험집단과 비교집단 각각 10명으로 구성하였다. 실험집단에는 10회기의 재활동기 강화 프로그램을 실시하였다. 그리고 프로그램 사전·사후에 나타난 실험집단과 비교집단의 재활동기 수준, 자아존중감 및 자기효능감 수준의 변화를 분석 고찰하였고 그 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 재활동기 강화 프로그램이 정신장애인의 재활동기에 미친 영향을 하위 영역별로 비교해 본 결과 전숙고단계, 숙고단계, 행동단계, 유지단계 수준을 향상시켰으며, 전숙고단계, 숙고단계, 유지단계 수준의 변화는 통계적으로 유의미한 결과를 나타내었다. 둘째, 재활동기 강화 프로그램이 정신장애인의 자아존중감에 미친 영향을 비교해 본 결과 자아존중감의 수준을 향상시켰으며, 자아존중감의 변화는 통계적으로 유의미한 결과를 나타내었다. 셋째, 재활동기 강화 프로그램이 자기효능감에 미친 영향을 하위 영역별로 비교해 본 결과 일반적인 자기효능감과 사회적인 자기효능감 수준을 향상시켰으며, 일반적인 자기효능감은 통계적으로 유의미한 결과를 나타내었다. 이상의 결과에서 알 수 있듯이 재활동기 강화 프로그램은 정신장애인의 재활동기 향상에 효과가 있는 것으로 나타났으며 동기의 주요 예측요인인 자아존중감과 자기효능감의 수준 향상에도 효과가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 몇 가지 제한점에도 불구하고 본 연구가 지니는 함의점은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 본 연구를 통해 제시된 재활동기 강화 프로그램이 정신장애인의 재활동기를 향상시키기 위한 구체적인 실천방안으로 활용될 수 있음을 시사하고 있다. 둘째, 본 연구를 통해 제시된 재활동기 강화 프로그램이 정신장애인의 재활동기에 영향을 줄 수 있는 자아존중감과 자기효능감 수준을 긍정적으로 변화시키기에 유용한 프로그램이 될 수 있음을 시사하고 있다. 셋째, 본 연구를 통해 제시된 재활동기 강화 프로그램은 초이론적 모델과 동기강화상담 원리를 적용하였다. 따라서 본 연구의 결과는 정신장애인의 재활동기와 관련하여 초이론적 모델과 동기강화상담의 원리가 활용될 수 있음을 시사하고 있다. Despite the theory that a motive is an important factor for mentally challenged people to be rehabilitated, there is a great need for studies on the effect of transtheoretical model in regard to mentally challenged people's motive and the program which is applied by the motivation counseling principle. Therefore, this study was arranged to provide the intervention plan for improving mentally challenged people's motives for rehabilitation by applying the motivation program in terms of transtheoretical model and motivation counseling principles to them and proving the effect. We conducted the experiment with mentally challenged people that are in the community mental rehabilitation center in D city, divided them into two groups - experiment group and comparative group, 10 for each group. For the experiment group, we tried 10 sessions of motivating rehabilitation program. Then we examined the changes in motivation level, self-esteem and self-efficiency levels for both groups displayed before and after the experiment. First, we compared the effect of motivation program on mentally challenged people's motives to be rehabilitated in terms of subordinate scope, found that it had improved the 4 stages of pre-consideration stage, consideration stage, action stage, and maintenance stage, and got a meaningful result statistically. Second, as a result of examining the effect of the program on the self-esteem of the patient, it is proved that the program had improved the level of self-esteem and the changes of self-esteem outperformed a meaningful result statistically. Third, as a result of examining the effect of the program on the self-efficiency, it is proved that the program had improved the general self-efficiency and social-efficacy, and the general self-efficiency outperformed a meaningful result statistically. As shown above, the motivating rehabilitation program proved to be effective in improving mentally challenged people's motivation and also in improving self-esteem and self-efficiency levels which are important factors for the motivation. Despite few limitations, here are the implicit points that this study found. First, this study suggests that the motivation program introduced in this study can be used as a specific action plan for improving mentally challenged people's motivation to be rehabilitated. Second, this study suggests that the program is useful in improving the level of self-esteem and self-efficiency that can greatly affect he motivation on the part of mentally challenged people. Third, this study applied the transtheoretical model and motivation counseling principles, thus it suggests that those can be applied in mentally challenged people's motivation as well.

수정된 문학서클에서 과업동기와 동기근거 : Task Motivation and Rationale in Modified Literature Circles

홈스존 Keimyung Graduate School 2012 국내석사

영어로 의사소통 능력에 대한 요구가 커져감에 따라 교사중심의 문법번역식 수업 방식에서 학생 중심의 의사소통 교육 방식으로 변화가 이루어지고 있다. 그러나 다른 나라에서 성공적이었던 이러한 방식이 한국에서도 적용될지는 아직 불분명해 보인다. 그러므로 한국적 상황에 잘 맞는 의사소통 중심 교육 방식에 대한 고찰이 필요하다. 이 연구의 목적은 수정된 문학서클이라고 불리는 협동적 학습기법에 있어서 자율성, 언어능력, 연관성 그리고 과업동기를 측정하는 것이다. 이를 위해, 자발적 결정능력이론을 이론적 체계로 사용하였다. 이 연구는 또한 과업 동기에 대한 동기 근거를 두 가지 과업, 즉 자율지원과업과 비자율지원 과업에서 찾아보았다. 실험 참여자는 총 37명의 한국인 영어교사로서 모두 6개월간의 교사연수프로그램에 참여하였다. 연구 결과 참가자들이 적당히 높은 수준의 내재적 및 외재적 과업동기뿐만 아니라 적당히 높은 수준의 자율성, 언어능력과 연관성을 경험했음을 보여 주었다. 게다가 상관관계 분석 결과는 수업과정에 대한 태도가 외부의 규제에 중재적인 효과가 있을 수도 있음을 암시한다. 이 연구는 수정된 문학서클이 영어를 외국어로 사용하는 한국의 상황에 적합한 협동적 학습기법이 될 수 있었음을 보여 주고 있다. 더욱이, 높은 과업동기는 학습자가 외부적으로 동기부여 받을 때조차 학습자에게 끝까지 하려는 의향을 불러일으키게 할 수 있다. The call for better communicative competence in English in Korea has resulted in a shift from a teacher-centered grammar translation approach to a more student-centered communicative approach. However, it is not yet clear how or if communicative techniques which have been successful in other countries will be equally successful in Korea. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the communicative techniques that can be successfully implemented in the Korean context. The purpose of this study was to measure autonomy, competence, relatedness and task motivation for a cooperative learning technique called modified literature circles using self-determination theory as its theoretical framework. It also investigated the effect that autonomy-supportive task rationale vs. nonautonomy-supportive task rationale had on task motivation. The participants were 37 Korean English teachers who were enrolled in a six-month teacher development program. The results demonstrated that the participants experienced moderately high levels of autonomy, competence, and relatedness as well as moderately high levels of intrinsic and extrinsic task motivation. In addition, correlation results suggest that course attitude can have a mediating effect on external regulation. The findings of this study indicate that modified literature circles could be a cooperative learning technique that is suitable for Korea's EFL context. Furthermore, high task motivation can produce in learners an intention to persist even when they are externally motivated.

THE MOTIVATION OF KOREAN EFL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS : THE EFFECTS OF GENDER, MAJOR, AND COMPUTER EXPERIENCES

Lara J. Hamilton 우송대학교 TESOL-MALL 대학원 2007 국내석사

This study is an examination of the effects of gender, major and computer experience on the motivation of Korean EFL students. The participants were 89 students in four freshmen classes of conversational English taught by the researcher at a private regional university in South Korea. This study shows that for some students motivation is a factor in the use of the websites. Major was also a factor in motivation. In the study female students generally reported a higher motivation than male students, but this was only statistically significant on Item 7 - Motivation to use World Link companion site, Item 9 - Used companion site for personal benefit and Item 15 - Teacher feedback increased motivation. Previous experience with the Internet had a positive and significant effect on motivation for Item 3 - Study English for travel, Item 7 - Motivated to use World Link companion site, Item 11 - Companion site was easy to use and Item 12 - Ease of use increased motivation. . This study shows that the use of the Internet, specifically textbook companion sites, can have a positive effect on motivation.

Identifying Motivational Factors in English Speaking through Examining Generation 1.5 Returnees: A Case Study

이단비 숙명여자대학교 TESOL?국제학대학원 2019 국내석사

There is an abundance of research on factors that contribute to learner motivation. However, while these findings shed light on important aspects of motivation, many focus on classroom contexts, disregarding the importance of general language learning motivation outside of an educational environment. General motivation can influence an individual’s desire to speak not only in a language learning classroom, but in other various contexts. Therefore, the goal of this study is to explore motivation in-depth, from a broader perspective, in and out of a language learning setting. This study examines five Generation 1.5 returnees through a case study. It is suggested in the findings that emerging themes such as Internal Cognitive State, Surrounding Context, Achieving Goals, and Metalinguistic Awareness are proven as imperative aspects of individual motivation in speaking. The current literature already reveals that adult Generation 1.5s resemble close to second language learners. As 1.5s are also learners of high awareness, their recollected experiences can allude to important information that can be used to confront issues and propose possible solutions in second language learning environment such as that of South Korea. There is an abundance of research on factors that contribute to learner motivation. However, while these findings shed light on important aspects of motivation, many focus on classroom contexts, disregarding the importance of general language learning motivation outside of an educational environment. General motivation can influence an individual’s desire to speak not only in a language learning classroom, but in other various contexts. Therefore, the goal of this study is to explore motivation in-depth, from a broader perspective, in and out of a language learning setting. This study examines five Generation 1.5 returnees through a case study. It is suggested in the findings that emerging themes such as Internal Cognitive State, Surrounding Context, Achieving Goals, and Metalinguistic Awareness are proven as imperative aspects of individual motivation in speaking. The current literature already reveals that adult Generation 1.5s resemble close to second language learners. As 1.5s are also learners of high awareness, their recollected experiences can allude to important information that can be used to confront issues and propose possible solutions in second language learning environment such as that of South Korea.

Investigating Factors That Affect Employee Intrinsic Motivation in the Public Sector : a case of the Ghana civil service

Nyatepe, Makafui Afi 서울대학교 대학원 2020 국내석사

직원들, 특히 공공부문의 직원들에 대한 동기 부여의 필요성에 대한 공감대는 학계에서도 어느 정도 형성되어 있고, 직원의 본질적인 동기 유발 요인에 대한 이해는 조직 목표 달성에 큰 도움을 줄 수 있지만, 이에 대한 연구는 아직까지 미흡하다고 볼 수 있다. 본 연구는 공공 부문 직원의 내재적 동기 부여에 영향을 미치는 요인을 조사하여 자율성, 전문성, 목적 그리고 본질적인 동기 사이에 어떤 연관성이 있는지를 알아내고자 한다. 자율성은 본인의 직무와 관련하여 업무 및 팀 선택 자율성, 그리고 재량권의 행사 정도로 정의된다. 전문성은 직무를 수행하는데 있어서 더 개선되고 더 완벽해야 하는가가 고려된다. 마지막 요인으로 목적은 공동체 또는 사회에 영향을 미칠 수 있는 의미 있는 일을 하는 것을 의미한다. 본 연구는 다니엘 핑크의 내재적 동기 요소를 적용하여, 자율성, 전문성 그리고 목적이 내재적 동기와 정의 관계가 있다고 가정했다. 내재적 동기와 자율성, 전문성 그리고 목적에 대한 선행연구에 따라, 가나 공공서비스 부문의 직원들에게 설문조사를 진행했다. 수집된 데이터를 기반으로 회귀분석을 실시한 결과, 가나 공공서비스 부문 직원들의 내재적 동기는 자율성, 전문성, 목적과 정의 관계를 갖고 있지 않았다. 마지막으로 이러한 발견의 한계 및 이론적, 실천적 함의에 대해 논의하였다. Scholars admit the need for motivation among employees, especially those in the public sector. Understanding employee intrinsic motivational factors can aid in successful attainment of organizational goals, however, little research has been conducted in the public sector regarding employee intrinsic motivation. This study investigates factors that affect employee intrinsic motivation of employees in the public sector. The objective is to find out if there is any association between autonomy, mastery, purpose and intrinsic motivation. Autonomy is explained as the freedom to choose which task, team and exercising discretion in relation to one’s work. Mastery element is concerned about the need to become better and perfect at doing a job and on the job. The last factor, purpose is refers to doing meaningful work that can impact society or community. Drawing on Daniel Pink’s elements of intrinsic motivation, it was hypothesized that autonomy, mastery and purpose were positively associated with intrinsic motivation. Also, based on a review of literature on intrinsic motivation and theories on factors such as autonomy, mastery and purpose, online survey was distributed to the sample, which comprise employees of the Ghana Civil Service. The collected data was analyzed using regression analysis approach which showed the association between the dependent and independent variables. The results indicate that intrinsic motivation factors such as autonomy, mastery, purpose did not have positive influence on intrinsic motivation of employees in the Ghana Civil service. Finally, the limitations of these findings and the theoretical and practical implications were discussed.

Motivation of Uzbek University Students to Learn the English Language

아르티코브, 더스턴 동아대학교 대학원 2024 국내석사

Motivation of Uzbek University Students to Learn the English Language ARTIKOV DOSTON Dept. of English Language & Literature Graduate School, Dong-A University Busan, Korea Language learners’ motivation is one of the most significant factors in SLA. Motivating students to learn English is also important in English education in Uzbekistan. This study explored the major types of motivation Uzbek University students have to learn the English language. The aim is to identify the differences of motivation between the first- and fourth-year students as well as English and non-English major students. The theoretical section presented a summary of the major motivation theories. The research methodology involved VLS survey which was adopted and revised from Taguchi, Magid, & Papi (2009) and statistical analysis. A total of 60 participants varying in age, year of study, majors, and English proficiency participated in the survey. Based on the results of the independent sample t-test, motivation between 1st year and 4th year Uzbek students was found different in some domains of motivation. The difference of motivation was also found between English majors and non-English majors in the domain of 'language learning experience'. Based on the findings, this study hopes to give English teachers valuable insights into the types of motivation and factors affecting their motivation.

Primary Classroom Teachers’ Motivation in Teaching Physical Education : A Self-Determination Theory Perspective

모하메드 서울대학교 대학원 2022 국내석사

The main purpose of the study is to explore the motivation of class room teachers for carrying out Physical Education (PE), using the model Self-determination theory (SDT) in understanding their motivation from the perceived fulfillment of three psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Moreover, the study will look into how various personal, and environmental factors impact on teachers’ fulfillment of autonomy, competence and relatedness for a positive motivational outcome. The participants of this study were 160 primary classroom teachers (142 females and 18 males) from the government schools in Male’ (capital of Maldives) who teach physical education. A cross-sectional, survey-based study design was employed. Participants were administered questionnaires using online means (email and online messaging applications) that reliably and accurately assessed the variables of the study. Descriptive analysis were computed. Internal consistency trustworthiness of all the constructs were determined using Cronbach’s alpha. To address the first purpose of the study multiple regression analysis were employed to determine how the perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence the dependent variables of perceived motivation to teach PE. The second purpose of the study administered multiple regression to explore how personal (i.e., educational background, teaching experience), and physical education environment (i.e., PE facility quality, administrative support) variables predict teachers’ perception of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Results indicated that teachers’ perception of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were positively associated with self-determined motivation. Furthermore, personal and environmental factors did not indicated any relations with perceived needs satisfaction. Findings support the tenets of SDT, on the contrary, personal and environmental variables did not contribute to the needs satisfaction. 본 연구의 목적은 자기 결정 이론(SDT)을 활용하여 체육 교사들의 세 가지 심리적 욕구 충족(자율성, 유능성, 관련성)에 따른 동기를 탐구하는 데 있다. 더불어 어떠한 개인적, 환경적 요인이 체육 교사의 긍정적인 동기를 위한 자율성, 유능성, 관련성 충족에 영향을 미치는지 알아보고자 하였다. 말레(몰디브의 수도)의 국공립 초등학교에서 근무하는 초등학교 체육 교사 160명(여 142명, 남 18명)이 본 연구에 참여하였으며, 온라인(E-mail 및 메시지 어플리케이션)을 통한 설문을 진행하였다. 설문지 기반의 단면 연구가 설계되었고, 참여자들의 모든 응답은 신뢰할 수 있고 정확하게 측정할 수 있는 온라인 수단(E-mail 및 메시지 어플리케이션)을 통해 기록 및 관리되었다. 수집된 응답을 바탕으로 기술 통계 분석을 실시하였으며, 모든 측정 도구의 신뢰도는 크롬바하 알파 값을 사용하여 확인하였다. 본 연구의 첫 번째 목적인 자율성, 유능성, 관련성에 대한 인식이 종속 변수인 체육 수업 동기에 미치는 영향을 알아보기 위해 다중회귀분석을 실시하였으며, 두 번째 목적인 개인적 변인(예: 교육 배경, 수업 경험) 및 물리적 교육 환경 변인(예: 체육수업 도구의 질, 행정적 지원)이 교사의 자율성, 유능성, 관련성 인식에 미치는 영향을 알아보기 위해 마찬가지로 다중회귀분석을 실시하였다. 연구 결과로서 자율성, 유능성, 관련성에 대한 교사들의 인식은 자기 결정 동기와 긍정적인 연관을 보였다. 그러나 개인적 및 환경적 변인은 자율성, 유능성, 관련성과 어떠한 관계를 보이지 않았다. 본 연구의 결과는 자기결정이론을 지지한다는 점을 시사하지만, 개인적 및 환경적 변인에 따른 영향을 밝히지 못함으로써 완벽하게 이론을 지지하지 못하였다.

상위수준 중학생 학습자들의 영어학습동기 인식 : 질적 연구

주 사라 서영 전북대학교 일반대학원 2019 국내박사

Motivation is the reason one starts the learning process, the drive behind the decision to continue learning, and the key to predicting one’s learning achievement. This is why, of the many affective variables that can gauge the success of one’s English learning, motivation has received the most attention. Motivation studies has been established as a major academic subfield in English education studies in South Korea as well; however, qualitative studies on secondary school students are relatively few. Students with advanced English fluency have received especially limited scholarly attention, most probably because students with high levels of achievement are generally thought to have high levels of learning motivation as well. Yet, would high-achieving students have sustained high levels of motivation in South Korea’s EFL environment and an educational reality in which many reasons external to the learner, rather than one’s own will, determines whether one starts and continues learning English? This study aims to examine the diverse motivational aspects of advanced middle school students through their experiences of learning English. Four specific research questions are raised to this end. First, how do participants perceive changes of their own motivational levels throughout each period? Second, what are the factors influencing the motivation of each period? Third, what are the current motivational statuses of the participants, based on self-determination theory? Finally, what roles do ideal L2 selves play in influencing learning motivation? To answer these questions, this study used qualitative research methods, because they were judged to be most fit to examine the thoughts and experiences of the participants. This study utilized narrative frames, a qualitative data collection method. Narrative frames were used as a tool to select participants as well. Potential participants were screened based on the recommendations from educational institutions and mock TOEFL scores; then, six participants were finalized through narrative frames, a form of writing that provides pre-written headings. Two sessions of retrospective storytelling through writing essays with the narrative frames, then two sessions of semi-structured interviews were conducted. The data, which was collected with a one-to-two-month term in between each session, were transcribed, coded by meaning unit, and analyzed. Results showed that participants had the highest motivational levels in the lower grades of elementary school, and the lowest levels in the higher grades of elementary school. Participants indicated that these low levels in the upper grades of elementary school either were sustained or rose slightly in middle school. These high-achieving students shared three main experiences, starting English relatively early in their lives, not only learning English in school but also receiving private English education, and being motivated or demotivated through interactions with family, teachers, and peers, but the factor of teacher influence was most notable. The most visible motivational subtype of the participants was external regulation, such as being motivated by good grades or college admissions; yet, interestingly, participants also scored high on motivational subtypes with high degrees of self-determination, such as identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. Participants also were shown to possess very specific and vivid ideal English selves. These self-images manifested even in participants that perceived themselves to have low motivation to learn English. This seems to be because participants’ possession of ideal English selves caused them to continue performing motivational behavior (e.g. completing homework, trying to concentrate in class) irrespective of their actual motivational statuses at a given time. Based on these findings, this study proposes the following. First, English education that explicitly presents linguistic forms such as vocabulary or grammar must be avoided in the elementary school period. Many high-achieving students who started learning English since they were young typically encounter linguistic forms of English during their upper grades in elementary school through parents or private educational institutions. An alternative educational approach that continues to develop the English fluency levels of advanced learners yet does not harm the motivation of these learners should be provided. Second, we must start a serious conversation on teaching strategies to maximize English learning motivation. Now that the positive impact of possessing ideal English selves on learning motivation has been confirmed, classes that develop students’ ideal English selves must be actively studied and implemented. Third, more effort must be put into motivating English teachers. The participants of this study recount the critical roles teachers have played on their motivation and demotivation throughout all learning periods. Lastly, to provide a better English education for students of all English backgrounds, this study proposes the reimplementation of well-designed classes separated by levels.

덕윤리의 대두와 주요 논쟁들 : 행위 지침과 행위 견인을 중심으로

이주석 연세대학교 대학원 2018 국내박사

The purpose of this study is to present a balanced answer to the problems of motivation and justification in ethics from the perspective of virtue ethics. Chapter 1 reviews the reason why ethics today has come to face a situation where it fails to respond to the question of motivation while presenting a relatively convincing answer to the problem of justification. The reason for this imbalance can be found in the history of the transition in the chief aim of ethics caused by the changes of the social structures. In order to resolve the imbalance, it is necessary to find a convincing answer to the question of motivation. This demand has led to the resurrection of virtue ethics today. From ancient times to the middle ages in the West, ethics has developed into centering on agents since before modern era there had been a comprehensive consensus on the justification of acts. In the small political communities such as ancient Greek city-states, it was possible for the members of a community to draw a general consensus on the justification of acts by sharing narratives of the community. For example, in the ancient Greek poleis, the members could reach a general consensus about what kinds of acts are virtuous and what kinds are vicious by sharing common narratives about myths, saints and heroes, history and culture. In a society centering on Catholic Church in the middle ages, God provided justification for acts. For instance, the authority of God and the Scripture was absolute for the members of the medieval society and it was possible to derive the legitimacy of the acts entirely from the authority. In this way, premodern ethics was able to solve the problem of justification in ethics relatively easily through the authority of God and the Scripture which has provided the common narratives of communities. Therefore, premodern ethics could be developed into centering on the question of motivation based on the given justification of the acts. The ethics developed into this manner is called virtue ethics or ‘agent-centered’ ethics. As such traditional societies were dismantled and strangers with different interests assembled and dispersed, however, the members of modern civil society could no longer share common narratives of myths, heroes, history and culture among them. Moreover, the universal church of the middle age was beginning to lose its absolute authority in the face of continuing challenges such as scientific revolution, the Renaissance and the Reformation. Therefore, the members of modern civil society must have tried hard to find ways to secure the foundation for the justification of acts already destabilized because, while the agent precedes an act, securing justification for the act precedes the agent’s motivation. In this context, ethics has had to develop in biased manner from modern era to the present centering on the problem of justification for the acts. Ethics developed in this way is called ‘act-centered ethics.’ Modern act-centered ethics basically rejects metaphysical teleology and attempts to secure justification of acts based on a monistic principle. And one side places the ground of justification on the result of the act and the other side places it on duty. Modern act-centered ethics is largely divided into utilitarianism represented by Bentham and Mill and deontology represented by Kant. Utilitarianism is based on the principle of 'the greatest happiness of the greatest number’, whereas deontology is based on the principles of 'categorical imperatives'. Kant’s first imperative is “"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" and on the second one “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.” Although each of these two camps has its own merits, each has developed the basis of unique incommensurable monistic principles which has worked as the standards for justification of acts. And they still exert considerable influence on the problem of justification even today. As a result, while ethics today provides a relatively convincing answer to the problem of justification, it is in a situation where it fails to answer the question of motivation. If so, we need to pay attention to the question of motivation in order to present a balanced and persuasive answer to problems of justification and motivation in ethics. And in order to meet this need, we are required to explore agent-centered ethics, that is, virtue ethics. Modern virtue ethics which interprets and introduces classical virtue ethics in new ways is expected to be a viable alternative or complementary ethics which can solve the question of motivation. For when we regard virtue as an agent’s good character mediating theory and practice, this character can be the best guide which can lead theory into practice. Chapter 2 ‘Preliminary Review: History of virtue ethics and virtues’ reviews the definitions of virtue by different camps of ethics under the assumption that ethics inevitably presupposes virtue. For this purpose, this chapter looks into the definitions of various in the various ethical positions and overviews the concepts of virtue seen from each position. Through this process, firstly, this chapter outlines of the concept of virtue, secondly, examines the relationship between the concepts of virtue and the ethical positions and, thirdly, attempts to roughly explore the relationship between the use of the concepts of virtue and the question of motivation. Next, the chapter deals with elements of virtue ethics in the developmental history the stages of initiation, decline, and resurrection of virtue ethics and reviews the elements of virtues and their roles presented in today's diversified society after the resurrection of virtue ethics. The notable difference between the elements of classical virtues and those of today's virtues lies in the fact that classical virtues are entirely based on metaphysical teleology, whereas today's virtues mostly reject it. Except for some positions of virtue ethics, they virtually seem to deny metaphysical teleology. This chapter views that identifying in what ways elements of virtue ethics are composed is related to the positions of virtue ethics today as well as to the question of ethical motivation. Thus, this chapter reviews the lists of virtues in the classical virtues such as Plato’s 4 cardinal virtues, Aristotle’s mean virtues and vices, and Thomas Aquinas' cardinal virtues and theological virtues, Pincoffs’ functional virtues, the virtues of liberal democracy suggested by Galston, Macedo, Gutmann and Walzer, the character strengths and virtues of positive psychology, and psychological virtues such as the 6 foundations of morality and virtues presented by moral psychologist Haidt. Through this process, this study tries, first, to show that any ethics cannot but presuppose virtues and, second, to reveal that, when presupposing virtues in ethics, we either explicitly or implicitly presuppose virtues. Based on this observation, this study could reach the conclusion that explicit presupposition of virtues in ethics would be more advantageous in clarifying the problem of act motivation than implicit presupposition of virtues. This conclusion not only provides a general understanding on the concept of virtue, which is the core concept of virtue ethics, but also serves as a preliminary task for future discussions. Chapter 3 'Virtue Ethics and Moral Dilemmas: the case of trolley dilemma' introduces moral dilemmas and pits virtue ethics against act-centered ethics. This chapter presents the 8 trolley dilemmas and verifies the responses and limitations of act-centered ethics or act-utilitarianism and Kant's deontological theory and predicts the possibility that virtue ethics can make contributions to solving moral dilemmas. First, this chapter examines what roles act-utilitarianism and Kant's deontology can play in tacking the 8 trolley dilemmas. Act-utilitarianism of classical utilitarianism justifies the judgment and choice of the agent who are presented with a trolley dilemma based on the principle, "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". And Kant's deontology also justifies the agent's judgment and choice based on the two forms of categorical imperatives, which are whether the agent's standard of judgment is universalizable and whether the agent does not use others as a means. If an agent is assumed to be act utilitarian in a pure sense, an agent will be able to make consistent moral judgments and decisions based on the results which the choice will bring when he/she is presented with trolley dilemmas. It naturally follows, however, that thoroughly consequential moral judgment of this kind cannot but frequently come into conflict with our moral intuitions. It doesn’t seem proper if a pure act utilitarian, facing this phenomenon, simply considers our moral intuitions as untrustworthy. And if an agent is assumed to be a deontologist in a pure sense, an agent will make moral judgments based on the two forms of categorical imperatives when he/she is presented with trolley dilemmas. Such thoroughly deontological moral judgments, however, also come into conflicts with our moral intuitions because, in some cases, the agent inevitably cannot but treat someone as a means or, in other cases, cannot but choose one of moral judgments and decisions which cannot be universalized. Hence, if an agent tries to maintain the deontological position as strictly as Kant did, deontology seems to be unable to avoid conflicts with our moral intuition as well. In short, act-utilitarianism and Kant's deontology, when each sticks thoroughly to monistic moral principle on which they are based, can provide answers to some of the 8 trolley dilemmas but not to others. On the other hand, if utilitarianism and deontology try to give answers to all the dilemmas, they inevitably accept and introduce parts of moral principles of the opposing camps and, when this happens, the purity of the foundations on which action-utilitarianism and Kant's deontology are based will essentially be undermined. Virtue ethics which is agent-centered can be free from the problems faced by act-centered ethics since it retains a pluralistic nature. In virtue ethics, a moral agent does not have to be a utilitarian or a deontologist in a pure sense. For the agent may use either utilitarian principles sometimes or deontological principles other times to make the most appropriate judgments in a particular situation. For other problems which cannot be solved based on these two principles, he/she can make judgements and decisions within the limits of extent and direction which another appropriate virtues set. What is important here is its ability to set the range and direction of virtues, which are clearly different from act-centered ethics. For virtue ethics accepts pluralistic principles and deals with various moral issues with different principles. And this difference is the advantage of virtue ethics. There are two questions to be addressed here. The first question is what problem arises when moral intuition does not correspond with a moral principle. In fact, it is also possible to strategically regard moral intuition as a fallacy as act-utilitarianism does. If moral intuition would be simply regarded as a fallacy, however, transition made from act-utilitarianism to rule-utilitarianism would have been unnecessary. Furthermore, in case of deontology, various complements such as the principle of double effect will also be no more than the unnecessary remedies in terms of pureness in moral principles. Nevertheless, the reason for avoiding conflicts with the moral intuition is to overcome the defects arising from the aspect of applicability or workability of a moral principle. That is, in case a moral principle conflicts with moral intuition, a problem arises that the ethical system loses the power of action-traction even when it can provide action-guidance. In this respect, Haidt’s argument that “development of moral principles is followed by moral intuition, and moral reasoning is like a lawyer justifying our moral intuition” presents some implications. The second question is that the people who participated in the trolley dilemmas were not the virtuous people but an unspecified multitude. The moral intuition of these people must be closer to common sense than to virtuous actions. If so, it would be a problem that virtuous men's actions would be different from the unspecified multitude’s actions. But when we call a man virtuous, he/she would be a praiseworthy person. The praise and blame would not conflict with the intuition of common moral actors who praise and blame. Thus, rather than the conflicting with our moral intuition, the actions of a virtuous person would play the role of guiding the moral actors’ actions that we intuitively think are right but cannot easily put into execution. Through these investigations, this chapter reveals the limitations which the attempts of modern ethics exposed in moral dilemmas and tries to show the fact that virtue ethics, which used to be considered to be helpless, can provide competitive understandings of human actions. Chapter 4 "Virtue Ethics in terms of Theory of Action: Guidance and Traction" deals with the problem of action-guidance which is the most powerful attack on virtue ethics. For virtue ethics can be seen to aim at the practice of ethics, whereas act-centered ethics is considered as being re-discussed by the criticism that it has neglected the question of motivation. If virtue ethics, however, fails to provide action-guidance, virtue ethics in effect loses the foundation of reinstatement. Here, this chapter summarizes criticisms of act-centered ethics against virtue ethics and the 3 responses of virtue ethics to the criticisms. Statman and Louden raise several important criticisms that virtue ethics lacks the ability to guide actions. Statman presents three criticisms; first, virtue is not universal; second, virtue ethics is much more vulnerable in applied ethics; and, finally, virtue is not essential because standards for actions are possible to exist before human characters. Louden suggests two criticisms. First, he points out that virtue ethics cannot provide specific ethical guidelines by focusing on agents rather than actions. Louden presents 3 grounds for this: first, it is difficult to guess the actions which a virtuous person would perform; second, a virtuous person at times acts out of his/her own character; and, finally, the motivation of virtue and honor cannot be fully routinized. Second, he points out that the actions of virtuous agent can cause tragedies. Seen from the perspective of the above criticisms, it seems that the concept of the virtue as a foundation of action-guidance is relatively ambiguous and a virtuous agent is not clear enough to be the standard of action-guidance. Toward these strong criticisms, virtue ethics can consider 3 types of response strategies; the first strategy is an active strategy which argue that virtue ethics can provide action-guidance better; the second is ‘partners in crime’ (you, too, tu quoque) strategy; and the third strategy is to argue that virtue ethics can provide better action-guidance through proper modifications though incomplete in itself. The first active response strategy adopts the method of making direct comparison and testing of 3 standards for verifying the power of action-guidance, which are the breadth, specificity, and decisiveness of the action-guidance proposed by Solomon. As for the breadth of action-guidance, agent-centered ethics based on pluralistic agent seems to be broader than act-centered ethics based on monistic moral principles. As seen in the trolley problem in Chapter 3, agent-centered ethics possesses broader action-guidance in that act-centered ethics can clearly distinguishes the types of dilemmas which it can better explain whereas, in agent-centered ethics, the agent can judge which ethical principles are suitable for which type of dilemma and set the scope and direction for the decision of an action through the virtue that is appropriate for the action. What we need to consider in the specificity of action-guidance is various factors in moral context such as moral feelings, values and relationships as well as the legitimacy of certain actions. However, while act-centered ethics presents standards for legitimacy of action in relatively clear manner, it tends to take an abstract position for other factors. Hence, from the perspective of standards for specificity in presenting appropriate action-guidance for moral situations we experience, it is possible to show that virtue ethics, which is agent-centered ethics, may have an advantage to compete with act-centered ethics. For decisiveness of action-guidance, we cannot but admit that utilitarianism is in the most favorable position followed by deontology and virtue ethics, which in other words means that virtue ethics is in the most disadvantageous position. The response strategy which argues that virtue ethics can provide better action-guidance than act-centered ethics sounds persuasive from the position of virtue ethics, which, nonetheless, would seem to be an insufficient answer for (the position of) act-centered ethic. Second, ‘partners in crime’ strategy implicitly accepts the criticism that it is difficult for virtue ethics to provide action-guidance in specific and definite situations while, at the same time, attacking act-centered ethics which is already considered as in possession of action-guidance. This strategy argues that virtue ethics is underestimated in terms of action-guidance power while act-entered ethics is overestimated. The strategy seems to be considerably persuasive in that it renders the competition for action-guidance meaningless. However, in reality, this strategy has a limitation in that it reveals the failure of act-centered ethics rather than providing with an answer to the problem that virtue ethics lacks the power of action-guidance. The third strategy is a scheme to escape from the impossible dogma that virtue ethics can provide better action-guidance than act-centered ethics and from the ‘partners in crime’ strategy which is a de facto renunciation of action-guidance. In addition, this strategy includes self-reflection on the first strategy. The core of the third strategy is to admit that virtue ethics has relatively weak power of action-guidance and that we have excessively believed in the power of action-guidance of act-centered ethics and to try to start competent discussions based on moral agent’s pluralistic nature of virtue ethics. Thus far, Chapter 4 has tried to unfold defending arguments beyond the partners-in-crime strategy as a response of virtue ethics to the problem of action-guidance based on the review in Chapter 3 'Virtue Ethics and Moral Dilemmas.' Next, reviewing the conditions of action-guidance, this Chapter points out that the criticism against virtue ethics in terms of action-guidance implies the criticism regarding action-traction because act-centered ethics seems to consider that action-guidance implies action-traction. However, it is necessary to distinguish action-guidance from action-traction. Moral motivation works as a mediator between action-guidance and action-traction. The most proper ethics which is required for this question of motivation is none other than virtue ethics. Here, by examining actions beyond obligations, problem of akrasia (weakness of will), overcoming the Tit-for-Tat strategy and possibility of heroism by ordinary moral agents, this Chapter argues that action-traction of virtue ethics is vital for ethical discussions. And, in the next section, this Chapter attempts to show the way how virtue ethics can enable action-guidance to induce action-traction by focusing on the problem of action-traction. Through the above study, we could clearly see that virtue ethics can effectively solve the question of motivation of acts even today. Furthermore, based on this conclusion, this study was able to find out a complementarity compromise for act-centered ethics based on virtue ethics. And this study could predict the possibility of ethics reaching a step closer to the mature development as a practical discipline. In order to realize such a prediction, it is necessary for us to further develop and elaborate the structure of ethical system through continuous researches which can embrace the achievements of act-centered ethics in the overall structures of virtue ethics. And for this development, we need to keep working on overall perspective and regulations of virtue ethics and carrying out in-depth investigations and explorations on individual and social virtues. 이 논문의 목적은 덕윤리의 입장에서 윤리학의 동기화 문제와 정당화 문제에 대한 균형 잡힌 답변을 제시하는 것이다. 이 목적을 위해 본 논의는 서론과 결론을 포함하여 총 다섯 장으로 구성하였다. 1장 서론에서는 오늘날 정당화 문제에는 비교적 설득력 있는 답변을 제시하고 있지만 동기화의 문제에 대해서는 적절한 답변을 하지 못하고 있는 윤리학의 문제 상황에 대해 검토한다. 이러한 불균형의 발생 원인은 사회구조의 변화에 따라 윤리학의 관점이 전환되었기 때문이다. 이러한 불균형을 해소하기 위해서는 동기화 문제에 대한 설득력 있는 답변이 필요하다. 이러한 요구가 오늘날 덕윤리의 부활로 이어졌다. 2장에서는 덕윤리와 덕목들의 역사에서 필연적으로 윤리학은 덕을 전제로 한다는 가정 하에 윤리학의 입장에 따른 덕의 규정들을 검토한다. 다음으로 덕윤리의 원형에 해당하는 고대와 중세의 덕목들을 발전사적으로 다루고 덕윤리 부활 이후 오늘날 다원화된 사회에서 제시되고 있는 덕목들과 그 역할을 검토한다. 이러한 검토는 덕윤리의 핵심 개념인 덕개념에 대한 이해를 제공할 뿐 아니라 이후 논의를 위한 예비적 작업이 된다. 3장에서는 도덕 딜레마를 도입하여 덕윤리와 행위 중심 윤리학을 대비시킨다. 여기서는 여덟 가지 트롤리 딜레마를 제시하고 행위 중심 윤리학, 즉 행위-공리주의와 칸트의 의무론 각각의 대응과 한계를 밝힌다. 이후 도덕 딜레마를 덕윤리를 통해 해결할 수 있는 가능성을 타진한다. 4장에서는 덕윤리의 행위론적 구조를 행위 지침과 행위 견인의 관계를 통해 파악한다. 이를 위해 먼저 덕윤리의 행위 지침에 대한 비판을 정리하고 그 비판에 대한 덕윤리의 세 가지 응수 전략을 각각 검토한다. 다음으로 행위 지침의 조건을 검토한다. 이 장에서는 덕윤리에 대한 행위 지침 비판은 행위 견인에 대한 비판을 함축한다는 사실을 지적한다. 행위 중심 윤리학은 마치 행위 지침은 행위 견인을 함축하는 것으로 간주하고 있는 것처럼 보이기 때문이다. 그러나 행위 지침과 행위 견인은 구분해서 다루어야 한다. 행위 지침과 행위 견인 사이에 도덕적 동기가 매개자 역할을 하기 때문이다. 즉, 이 동기가 덕과 밀접한 관계가 있고, 동기화 문제를 해결을 위해 다시 요청된 윤리가 덕윤리라는 것을 밝히고자 한다. 마지막 결론에서는 명백하게 덕윤리가 오늘날에도 행위 동기화의 문제를 효과적으로 해결할 수 있다는 점을 강조한다. 더 나아가 이러한 결론 위에서 덕윤리를 토대로 한 행위 중심 윤리학의 보완적 절충을 모색해 볼 수 있다.

(A) Comparative Study on Motivation and English Achievement Among Students in Alternative School and Public High School

김사라 韓國外國語大學校 敎育大學院 2018 국내석사

The purpose of the present study is to investigate the differences in motivation pattern between students in public high school and alternative school. Also, it aims to identify any differences in the level of motivation according to different levels of English achievement. To this end, the following two research questions have been set. 1. Are there any differences in the level of motivation subtypes between students in public school and alternative school? 2. Are there any differences in the level of motivation according to different levels of English achievement? The participants of this study were 190 students in D public school located in Seoul, and 119 students in H alternative school located in Pohang. A survey on motivation based on the self-determination theory (SDT) was administered along with a cloze test for measuring English achievement level. The cloze test constituted of sentences with ten blanks to fill in with appropriate words such as verb, noun, or prepositions, to complete the sentence. The motivation survey was developed by drawing on Noels et al. (2000), Tanaka (2013), and Ji (2011), and it measures motivational orientations for learning English. It is composed of 5 subscales with 4 items each to measure the level of: amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation. Also, participants’ background information was included in the survey to find the participants’ characteristics. The main findings are as follows. First, it was shown that the level of motivation do not differ significantly according to different types of schools. The only statistically significant difference that is shown due to difference in types of schools was external regulation (F = 5.504, p =.020). Therefore, it can be concluded that except for external regulation, the two different educational settings, public high school and alternative school, do not have a significant effect on motivation. Second, the data analysis revealed that level of motivation differ more significantly with different levels of achievement than with different types of schools. There were statistically significant differences for three different subtypes of motivation with different levels of achievement: amotivation (F = 5.529, p =.004), identified regulation (F = 3.439, p =.033), and intrinsic motivation (F = 4.508, p =.012). Upon examining the post tests for these subtypes of motivation that differed significantly with different achievement levels, a pattern could be observed. For the subtype of motivation with lower self-determination, amotivation, the mean score of amotivation decreased with increasing levels of achievement. On the other hand, for the subtype of motivation with higher self-determination, identified regulation and intrinsic motivation, the mean scores increased with increasing levels of achievement. Third, the highest level of motivation was shown commonly to be identified regulation for both public high school (M = 3.83) and alternative school (M = 3.96). The subsequent level of motivation subtypes from highest to lowest were also in the same order for both schools: The highest level of motivation was identified regulation (public M = 3.83; alternative M = 3.96), then intrinsic motivation (public M = 3.10; alternative M = 3.26), introjected regulation (public M = 2.86; alternative M = 2.97), external regulation (public M = 2.85; alternative M = 2.66), and finally amotivation (public M = 2.61; alternative M = 2.34). The pedagogical implication of the results is that there is a need for employing means to increase higher self-determined motivation in both public high school students and alternative school students. It would be important to facilitate students to have higher sense of autonomy and self-determination through improvements in the classroom environment and teaching methodology. 본 연구는 일반계 고등학교와 대안학교 학생간의 영어 학습 동기 양상을 탐색하고 차이를 비교 분석하고, 두 학교의 학생들의 동기 유형이 성취 수준에 따라 어떠한 차이를 보이는지 탐색 및 분석하는데 목적이 있다. 이러한 목적을 위해 다음 과 같은 연구문제를 설정하였다. 첫째, 일반계 학교와 대안학교 학생들 간에 영어 동기 유형에 수준 차이가 있는가? 둘째, 영어 학습 성취도 수준에 따라 동기 유형에 수준 차이가 있는가? 이와 같은 연구문제를 탐색하기 위해 서울특별시 소재의 일반계 고등학교 학생 190명과 포항시 소재의 대안학교 항생 119명을 대상으로 동기 유형을 알아보는 설문과 영여 성취도 평가를 위한 클로즈 테스트를 실시하였다. 클로즈 테스트는 동사, 명사, 전치사로 적절하게 문장을 완성시키도록 빈칸 열 개를 포함한 문장들로 구성되었다. 동기 설문지는 Noels와 Cle'ment(2000)의 설문문항과 Tanaka(2013)와 Ji (2011)의 설문문항을 참고하여 재구성하여 사용하였다. 이 설문지는 무동기, 외적조절, 부과된 조절, 확인된 조절의, 내적동기의 5가지 하위척도로 되어 있으며 각 요인은 4문항으로 구성되었다. 또한, 연구대상자들의 특징들을 살펴보기 위해 배경정보를 묻는 문항도 포함되었다. 본 연구를 통해 얻은 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 학교의 차이는 동기 유형에 유의미한 차이를 나타내지 않았다. 학생들의 동기의 하위 유형 중 외적조절만 학교에 의한 유의미한 차이(F = 5.504, p =.020)를 보였다. 따라서 일반계 고등학교와 대안학교의 교육환경의 차이는 외적조절을 제외한 동기 유형에 유의미한 영향을 미치지 못 하는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 학교유형에 따른 차이보다 성취도 수준에 따른 차이가 동기 유형에 더 유의미한 차이를 나타냈다. 무동기(F = 5.529, p =.004), 확인된 조절(F = 3.439, p =.033), 내적조절(F = 4.508, p =.012)의 세 가지 동기유형이 성취도 수준에 따라 유의미한 차이를 나타냈다. 이 세 가지 동기유형에 대한 사후 결과에 따르면 낮은 자기결정성을 가진 무동기의 수준은 성취도가 높아질수록 낮아졌고, 높은 자기결정성을 가진 확인된 조절과 내적조절은 성취도가 높아질수록 높아졌다. 셋째, 동기유형 평균을 비교한 결과 일반계 고등학교와 대안학교는 동일하게 확인된 조절이 가장 높은 동기유형으로 나타났으며, 그 다음으로 내적조절, 부과된 조절, 외적조절, 무동기 순으로 나타났다. 이와 같은 결과는 일반계 고등학교와 대안학교 모두 학습자가 보다 높은 자기결정성 동기를 가질 수 있는 방안을 마련할 필요성을 시사한다. 교실 학습 환경 및 교수 방법 개선을 통해 학습자에게 자율성과 자기결정성을 부여하며 외적 동기를 내면화 할 수 있도록 도우는 것이 중요할 것이다.