협력과 대립 : 근대 중국 서의계(西醫界)의 파벌문제

조정은(JO Jeongeun) 대한의사학회 2016 醫史學 Vol.25 No.2

일본점령기 상하이의 콜레라 방역과 도시공간 - 백신 강제 접종과 주민의 인식을 중심으로

조정은(Jo, Jeongeun) 도시사학회 2021 도시연구 Vol.- No.26

이 논문은 일본점령기(1937-1945년) 상하이의 도시공간을 중심으로 이동제한을 도구로 삼아 콜레라 백신접종이 확대되어 가는 과정을 분석하고, 일본의 식민권력이 백신접종을 중시한 원인을 살펴본 것이다. 나아가 보편접종을 둘러싼 논쟁을 분석하여 강제적 백신접종에 대한 주민들의 인식을 밝혔다. 콜레라는 콜레라균에 오염된 물이나 음식을 통해 감염되며, 적절한 치료를 받지 못하면 사망률이 50-60%에 이르는 무서운 병이다. 상하이의 방역을 담당하게 된 일본에게 콜레라와 같은 무서운 전염병의 유행은 일본 의학의 우수성을 알릴 좋은 기회이자, 일본 식민권력의 점령지 통치에 직접적인 영향을 줄 수 있는 위기이기도 했다. 콜레라는 대표적인 수인성 전염병으로, 콜레라 유행의 근본적인 대책은 상하수도 시설의 정비나 식품위생의 감독이다. 그러나 중일전쟁으로 인해 생겨난 난민수용소를 중심으로 콜레라의 유행이 심각한 상황에 이르자, 많은 인력과 물자, 시간이 필요한 도시위생 인프라의 정비보다는 백신접종이 주목받게 되었다. 또한 일본은 국가가 직접적으로 환자를 격리하고 감염이 퍼지지 않도록 통제하며, 치료보다 예방에 치중하는 독일식 의학의 영향을 받았다. 따라서 상하이에서 일본의 콜레라 방역책도 통제를 기반으로 하여 강제적 백신접종을 중시하는 방향으로 나아갔다. 주요 통행로에서 접종증명서를 검사하여 접종서가 없으면 강제로 접종을 했다. 또한 접종증명서가 있어야 버스를 이용하거나 다른 지역으로 출입할 수 있었다. 많은 중국인과 외국인들이 이동을 위해 콜레라 백신접종을 받았다. 물론 상수도 시설정비와 무료 수도전 설치 등도 병행하였으나, 가장 많은 공을 들인 사업은 백신접종이었다. 이동 제한 때문에 백신을 접종했다는 사실은 중국인들이 백신접종을 꺼렸음을 보여준다. 중국인 사이에서는 일본의 백신접종 주사는 독이라서 맞으면 죽는다는 소문이 돌기도 했다. 그러다 보니 일본은 백신접종을 강제하기 위해 접종증명서가 없으면 자유롭게 돌아다닐 수 없게 하는 정책을 계속 강화했다. 백신의 부작용이 발견돼도 무조건 모두에게 백신을 맞춰야 한다고 여겼다. 이러한 태도의 근저에는 공공의 안전을 위해서라면 소수의 개인은 희생해도 좋다는 생각이 깔려있다. 비록 개인의 자유가 침해받더라도 공공의 안전을 지킬 수 있다면 보편접종을 해야 하며 부득이하게 희생자가 발생하여도 어쩔 수 없다는 공공위생전문가의 주장은 이러한 생각을 대변한다. 일본점령기 백신접종을 맹신하고 옹호하며 이용하는 식민권력의 강경함 앞에서 백신접종을 우려하는 목소리는 묻힐 수밖에 없었다. 실제로 1943-1944년 콜레라의 유행이 멈추기도 했다. 보편접종 정책으로 인해 백신 접종자 수가 늘면서 일종의 집단면역이 일시적으로 유지되었던 것인지도 모른다. 일본은 백신접종을 통해 콜레라가 통제되고 있다고 주장하면서 강제적 백신접종 정책을 유지했다. 1945년 제2차 세계대전의 종식과 함께 일본군은 상하이를 떠났지만, 일본식 방역책은 상하이시정부의 방역책에 그대로 남았다. This paper aims to examine the reason why Japanese authorities concentrated on vaccination as a method for cholera prevention, and how Chinese people resisted the forced vaccinations from 1937 to 1945, when Shanghai was occupied by the Japanese army. Cholera is infected through contaminated water or food containing cholera bacteria, and when patients do not receive proper treatment, 50-60% of them can die, underscoring the deadliness of cholera as a disease. For Japan, which took charge of epidemic prevention in Shanghai, the spread of severe infectious diseases like cholera presented a strong opportunity to promote the excellence of Japanese medicine, as well as practicing the prevention of a crisis that might directly affect Japan’s control over the occupied territory. Cholera is a representative waterborne epidemic, and a fundamental measure against the prevalence of cholera is to improve water supply and drainage facilities or more strongly supervise food hygiene. However, Japan focused on movement restrictions and vaccination rather than removing fundamental causes for the spread of cholera, as a great deal of manpower and supplies were required to repair and improve urban sanitation infrastructure. People could use the buses or move to other regions only when getting a certificate of cholera vaccination. The fact that people were vaccinated only due to movement restrictions demonstrates that Chinese people were mainly reluctant to get the vaccine. Additionally, a rumor circulated stating that people could die from vaccination, because Japan injected poison into the vaccination shots. Japan then kept reinforcing the policy to restrict free travel without vaccination certificates in order to force people to be vaccinated. Of course, the maintenance of water supply facilities, the installation of tap water facilities, and the management of food hygiene were carried out in parallel, but the most elaborate project still consisted of widespread vaccination. It was not that there were was a lack of critical voices speaking on the doubt of vaccination and the side -effects of forced vaccination. In spite of people’s antipathy and the discovery of the vaccines side-effects, Japan still sought to vaccinate all the people. This attitude was based on the belief that for the sake of public safety, a minority of individuals could be sacrificed. Even after the rapid development of modern medicine, some still distrust the efficacy and safety of vaccinations up until now. But the voices of concern about vaccination were emasculated by the strong colonial power that had blind faith in vaccination and continued to use it during the Japanese occupation, during which Japan even maintained the forced vaccination policy until 1945, and claimed that cholera was under control due to this vaccination campaign.

중국 근대 의학교육체제의 모색 - 베이징협화의학원(PUMC)의 영미파 西醫를 중심으로

조정은 ( Jo Jeongeun ) 한국중국학회 2020 중국학보 Vol.93 No.-

이 논문의 목적은 록펠러재단(The Rockefeller Foundation)의 영향력 아래에 있던 베이징협화의학원 (北京協和醫學院; Peking Union Medical College, 이하 PUMC)에 주목하여 영미파(英美派) 서의(西醫) 가 중국 의학교육을 이끌기 위해 어떤 구상을 하고 있었는지 밝히는 것이다. 서의란 서양 근대의학을 배우고 실천한 중국인 의사를 뜻한다. 유학한 나라 혹은 교육언어, 출신학교의 성격에 따라 크게 영미파와 일독파(日獨派)로 나눌 수 있다. 베이양정부(北洋政府) 시기에는 일독파가 우세하였으나, 난징국민정부(南京國民政府)에 이르면 영미파가 서의계의 중심 세력으로 성장한다. 그리고 이 과정에서 록펠러재단의 지원은 무시할 수 없는 힘을 발휘하였다. 록펠러재단은 미국의 유명한 석유 부호 존 록펠러(John D. Rockefelle)가 1913년 설립한 자선사업 단체이다. 록펠러재단의 차이나 메디컬 보드(China Medical Board, CMB)는 위생행정을 실행할 수 있을 정도의 수준 높은 중국인 의사 및 위생 전문가의 양성을 목표로 PUMC를 인수했다. PUMC 교육 체제의 가장 큰 특징이자 장점은 모든 수업을 영어로 진행했다는 점이다. 수준 높은 서의를 양성하여 이들이 중국의 의학을 선도하도록 하려면, 빠르게 변화하는 의학 지식을 문제없이 배울 수 있어야 하기 때문이다. PUMC의 영미파 서의에게 있어 PUMC는 자신들의 사회적 지위를 보장하고 교육적 이상을 실현할 수 있는 중요한 장소였다. 이는 파버 보고서(Faber’s Report)에 대한 PUMC 관련 의료전문가의 의견을 살펴봄으로써 잘 알 수 있다. 파버 보고서란 파버(Knud Faber) 박사가 1930년 가을 국제연맹에 제출 한 중국 의학교육에 대한 보고서이다. 파버 보고서가 제출된 후, 의료전문가들은 보고서의 내용에 관한 비공개 토론회에 참석하거나 의견서를 제출하여 생각을 교류했다. 이들 중에 많은 수가 영미파 서의이자 PUMC의 교수진이었다. 이 보고서에서 파버 박사는 교육부가 잠정적으로 생각하고 있던 두 종류의 의학교 운영 계획을 지지했다. 즉 그는 수준 높은 소수의 의료 엘리트를 양성하는 의과대학(Medical College)과 다수의 의료전문가를 양성할 수 있는 의학전문학교(Special Medical School)를 함께 운영해야 한다고 보았다. 그러나 PUMC 관련자들은 이 주장을 탐탁지 않게 여겼다. 수준 낮은 서의를 대량으로 양성하는 건 중 국의 의학 발전에 큰 도움이 안 된다고 생각했기 때문이다. 이들은 의과대학 교육체제의 표준을 정 립하고 기존 의과대학의 수준을 높이는게 더 중요하다고 주장했다. 그러나 서의의 수가 너무 부족 하므로 일단 수준이 낮더라도 빠르게 많은 수의 서의를 양성할 수 있는 체제가 필요하다는 주장도 거셌다. 의견의 일치를 보지 못하자 PUMC의 류루이헝은 일단 시범 학교를 운영해 보고, 2년 후에 그 경험을 가지고 어떻게 의학교를 바꿀 것인지 논의하자는 대안을 내놓았다. 결국 의료전문가들은 고등 보통 의과대학(Higher Normal Medical College)과 더불어 실험적 의학교(Experimental Medical School)를 운영하는데 잠정적으로 합의했다. 이 과정에서 PUMC 관련자는 PUMC가 과학적인 의학교육의 표준을 세우는 일에 큰 역할을 담당 할 수 있다고 거듭 강조했다. 고등 보통 의과대학은 다른 의과대학의 모범이 될 수 있는 수준 높은 교육체제를 갖춘 대학이어야 한다. 즉, PUMC야말로 고등 보통 의과대학으로 삼아야 할 대학이었다. 또한 PUMC의 자원과 인력은 실험적 의학교의 운영에도 큰 도움이 될 수 있었다. 우선 뛰어난 교수 진을 보유하고 있어, 실험적 의학교의 운영에 필요한 실력 있는 교사를 파견할 수 있었다. 특히 전문 가들이 두 부류의 의과대학 모두 영어 교육이 필수라고 인정했기 때문에, PUMC 출신 의사의 입지는 더욱 단단해질 것이 분명했다. 이 외에도 PUMC 관련자들은 PUMC의 잘 갖춰진 설비와 시설을 활용 하여 중국에 더 나은 의학교육을 제공할 기회를 얻을 수 있으리라 자신했다. 이처럼 파버 보고서를 둘러싼 논의에서 알 수 있듯이, PUMC 관련 영미파 서의는 PUMC를 모범으로 삼아 중국의 의학교육체제를 정비해야 한다고 생각했다. PUMC가 외국의 지원을 받아 운영되고 외국인의 영향력이 강한 의과대학이라는 점은 큰 문제가 되지 않았다. PUMC의 역할이 강조될수록, 의학교육에서 PUMC 관련 영미파 서의의 입지도 강화될 것이었다. 실제로 PUMC의 영미파 서의는 오히려 외국과의 연계를 통해 얻은 서구식 교육과 유학 경험, 영어 능력, 높은 수준의 의학적 지식을 이용하여 점차 중국 서의계의 주류로 떠오르게 된다. This paper aims to inquire into the plans of the Britain-America faction(英美派; yingmeipai) to take the lead in Chinese medical education, focusing on Peking Union Medical College(PUMC) under the influence of the Rockefeller Foundation. Western medical doctors(西醫; xiyi) refer to Chinese doctors, who learned Western modern medicine and practiced. Western medical doctors can be classified into a Britain-America faction a Japan-Germany faction(日獨派, 德日派; deripai) depending on the countries, where they studied, or educational languages and the characters of the schools that they graduated from. At first, the Japan-Germany faction was predominant, but the Britain-America faction began to grow as the central power of the Western medical doctors’ circles over time. The support from the Rockefeller Foundation exerted a significant force in this process. The Rockefeller Foundation is a charity founded by John D. Rockefeller, a famous American oil millionaire, in 1913. The China Medical Board of the Rockefeller Foundation took over PUMC with the aim of fostering highly-qualified Chinese doctors and hygienists that were capable of fulfill health administration. The most distinguishing feature and strongest point of PUMC’s education system is all the classes were run in English, because students needed to learn rapidly changing medical knowledge with no problem to be Western medical doctors of high standard and lead Chinese medicine. Western medical doctors from PUMC became the pivot of the Britain-America faction, based on their high-level English skills and medical knowledge, experience in studying in Europe and America and linkage with the Rockefeller Foundation. In other words, PUMC was a crucial place for Western medical doctors of the Britain-America faction to guarantee their social positions and realize an educational ideal. This is well displayed in the views of PUMC-related medical experts on the Faber’s Report. Faber’s Report is about Chinese medical education submitted by Doctor Knud Faber to the League of Nations in 1930. The most important suggestion in this report was to manage the Medical College training a minority of highly-qualified medical elites in combination with a normal medical school that could teach a majority of medical experts. The persons involved in PUMC did not welcome this suggestion, thinking that training a large number of low-level Western medical doctors would not help much in developing Chinese medicine. They claimed it was more important to establish the standard of the medical school education system and raise the levels of existing medical schools. However, there was also a strong argument that a system for training a lot of Western medical doctors quickly was required regardless of the levels of Western medical doctors, in order to improve the extreme shortage of the number of Western medical doctors. When they were failing to reach an agreement, J. Heng Li(劉瑞恒) of PUMC put forward an alternative to talk about how to change the medical school two years after running a model school. Finally, the experts tentatively agreed to run the Experimental Medical School along with the Higher Normal Medical College. During this process, the persons involved repeatedly stressed that PUMC could perform a role in establishing the standard of scientific medical education. PUMC with a high level of education system that could set a good example for other medical schools was indeed qualified to serve as a higher normal medical college. Besides, PUMC’s own resources and manpower could be of big help when managing the experimental medical college. Since they were equipped with the outstanding teaching staff, the college was able to dispatch its competent teachers required to run the experimental medical college. Especially, it was obvious that doctors from PUMC could build up a stronger presence, as the importance of English education was recognized by all the experts. The well-organized facilities and institutions of PUMC were also enough to provide a higher level of medical education. As stated above, Western medical doctors of the Britain-America faction from PUMC thought there was a need to improve the Chinese medical education system so they could strengthen their positions too. It was not a big problem that PUMC was funded by overseas countries and highly influenced by foreigners. Instead, Western medical doctors of the Britain-America faction began to emerge as the mainstream in the Chinese world of Western medical doctors, using their experience in receiving Western education and studying abroad, high English skills and a high level of medical knowledge.

의료선교사의 중의학에 대한 인식

조정은(JO Jeongeun) 대한의사학회 2015 醫史學 Vol.24 No.1

Protestant medical missionaries, who started entering China during the beginning of the 19th century, set the goal as propagating Western medicine to the Chinese while spreading the Christian gospel. Back in those days, China formed deep relations with their own ideology and culture and depended on Chinese medicine that caused major influence on their lives instead of just treatment behaviors. Accordingly, it is natural to see information about Chinese medicine in documents that were left behind. Yet, there are not many studies which dealt with the awareness of Chinese medicine by medical missionaries, and most were focused on the criticism imposed by medical missionaries regarding Chinese medicine. Thus, there are also claims amongst recent studies which impose how the medical missionaries moved from overlooking and criticizing Chinese medicine to gaining a “sympathetic viewpoint” to a certain degree. Still, when the documents left behind by medical missionaries is observed, there are many aspects which support how the awareness of Chinese medicine in medical missionaries has not changed significantly. In addition, medical missionaries actively used medicine like traditional Chinese drugs if the treatment effect was well known. Yet, they barely gave any interest to the five elements, which are the basics of traditional Chinese drugs prescription. In other words, medical missionaries only selected elements of Chinese medicine that were helpful to them just like how the Chinese were choosing what they needed from Western knowledge. The need to understand Chinese medicine was growing according to the flow of times. For instance, some medical missionaries admitted the treatment effect of acupuncture in contrast to claiming it as non-scientific in the past. Such changes were also related to how focused medical missionaries were on medical activities. The first medical missionaries emphasized the non-scientific aspect of Chinese medicine to verify the legitimacy of medical mission. Then, medical missionaries gradually exerted more efforts on medical treatment than direct mission activities so the need of Chinese medicine became greater. This was because Chinese relied on Chinese medicine the most and even used Chinese medicine terms that they knew to explain their conditions while getting treatment from doctors who learned Western medicine. Additionally, medicine missionaries witnessed patients getting better after receiving treatment so they could not completely overlook Chinese medicine. However, medical missionaries strongly believed in the superiority of Western medicine and considered that China certainly needed Western medicine from a scientific perspective. Chinese doctors who were close to medical missionaries and learned about Western medicine believed in Western medicine and thought that Chinese medicine only held historical value besides some fields like Chinese traditional drugs.

위생이냐, 이윤이냐

조정은(Jo, Jeongeun) 역사비평사 2019 역사비평 Vol.- No.126

This paper is intended to analyze water supply, which is an essential facility to construct a urban sanitation system, focusing on Shanghai Waterworks Company of modern Shanghai International Settlement. In particular, this study is focused on urban sanitation characteristics of modern Shanghai, paying attention to a collision and a compromise between public interest and private interest that were caused, since the management of water supply for the public was entrusted to Shanghai Waterworks Company by Shanghai Municipal Council. The free water supply, conducted as part of cholera prevention in the 1930s, is a representative case of a collision between improvement of sanitation and increase of profit that were the two typical purposes of Shanghai Waterworks Company and Shanghai Municipal Council. The Chinese government asked for the free water supply for the poor, but Shanghai Waterworks Company dawdled and hesitated, worrying if it might negatively affect their business. But once an infectious disease spreads in a slum, safety of the whole international settlement cannot be guaranteed. In the end, Shanghai Waterworks Company decided to supply free clean water to the slum. Of course, it was only provided to a specific slum temporarily while the cholera prevailed.

중국 근대 프로테스탄트 의료선교사(史) 연구의 흐름

조정은(Jo, Jeongeun) 중국근현대사학회 2018 중국근현대사연구 Vol.79 No.-

The aim of this paper is to suggest the future direction of research on the history of medical missionary works by taking a general view of performances of research on the history of Chinese modern protestant medical missionary works in three Eastern Asian countries and considering insufficiencies of the previous studies. The history of protestant medical missionary works is a very important research topic to understand the Chinese modern medical history, since those works introduced modern medicine to China in earnest. Besides, this research is required to comprehend the history of Chinese modern Christianity, since medical practice has been regarded as a kind of missionary work. Until the 70s, most studies were to criticized medical missionary works, considering them as cultural invasion of imperialism. But after the 80s, studies focusing on positive aspects of medical missionary works began to emerge. Since the 90s, the scope of research has expanded and research topics and regions have diversified. The first study on Chinese medical missionary works is a record that a medical missionary in China wrote and left himself. This is valuable as a historical record to show how missionaries thought about China at that time. The second is a study on figures, who were involved in medical missionary works. There are studies focusing on the identities of medical missionaries, who had to perform two roles as a doctor and as a missionary and focusing on lives and activities of medical activities of named medical missionaries. The third is a study on the indigenization discourse. This study is to examine the process in which the leading role of medical missionary activity switched from foreign missionaries to Chinese people. Fourthly, the studies on hospitals and medical schools occupy the biggest proportion of research from the perspective of the medical history, since hospitals and medical schools are where medical mission is realized directly. Fifthly the majority of studies on activities and influences of medical missionary groups are concentrated on the establishment of Medical Missionary Society in Guangzhou and the China Medical Missionary Association, their activities, and influences on Chinese society. Lastly, there are studies on translation of medical terms and publication of medical books of medical missionaries. After the 1980s, there was an increase in concern about the history of medical missionary works and a lot of research findings were announced. But it is hard to say that research on medical missionary works is a mainstream in the history of Christianity and in the history of medicine. For active future research on this field, following studies would be needed. First, there should be a study to compare and consider the histories of Korean, Chinese and Japanese medical missionary works, since medical missionaries worked in Korea and Japan as well as in China and they highly influenced modern medical development in Korea, China and Japan. This comparative study would help in figuring out the reasons why medical missionary works could develop in modern East Asia. Second, the studies on figures are mostly focused on specific regions or specific figures. Thus, microhistorical research focusing on more diverse figures and missionary groups should be conducted. Third, research on indigenization needs to consider both missionaries and Chinese people. It is also necessary to pay attention to “self-propagating”, in mission hospitals and medical schools. Fourth, research on the medical history lacks a consideration of specificity of church medical works represented by religiosity. On the contrary, research on the history of Christianity lacks an understanding of professional medical fields. There is a need to consider these two aspects comprehensively. Fifth, it is required to do comparative research, which includes activities of Catholicism, in addition to protestant medical missionary works.

근대 상하이 공공조계 우두 접종과 거주민의 반응: 지역적·문화적 비교를 중심으로

조정은(JO Jeongeun) 대한의사학회 2020 醫史學 Vol.29 No.1

In modern Shanghai, smallpox was one of the most threatening diseases with its mortality rate going up to 30 percent. In response to the disease, Dr. William Lockhart, a medical missionary of the London Missionary Society, introduced vaccination(牛痘) to the Chinese people in Shanghai. He built the first western style hospital in Shanghai, Renji Hospital (仁濟醫院), in 1843. At this time, native doctors also played a very important role. For example, Huang Chun-pu (黄春圃) was in charge of the dispensary in the Chinese City in Shanghai, and he was the one who introduced vaccination under Dr. Lockhart’s direction. In 1868, the Health Office of Shanghai Municipal Council began to implement a vaccination program. Around the turn of the 20th century, the Health Office of Shanghai Municipal Council managed several sub-district offices, hospitals, dispensaries, gaol, and even the traditional place like simiao [祀庙] for the free vaccinations. Urban residents benefited from a sanitary system, such as wide and free vaccination, compared to people who lived in rural areas. Moreover, Shanghai possessed the advantage of having the vaccine as a staple product of the Municipal Laboratory. The number of units of the vaccine issued from the Laboratory in sequence of years from 1898 to 1920 has been 115,351 on average. Unlike the International Settlement, where systematic inoculation was conducted under the leadership of the Municipal Council, the Chinese City was still reliant on charity organizations in the early 1900s. The foreign residence in the International Settlement had a strong influence from the foreign governments, and foreign doctors were well-aware of the need for the vaccination. However, the Chinese City was a Chinese enclave that was still under the traditional rule of the Qing Dynasty. In addition, the people of Shanghai had different perceptions of the smallpox vaccination, and this became an obstacle to the establishment of urban sanitation systems. Some Chinese people still relied on the traditional Chinese variolation (人痘) and Chinese custom. For example, Chinese people still applied for inoculation in the spring and avoided summer and fall following traditional Chinese variolation, even though the best time to get vaccinated was in early winter before the spread of smallpox. In addition, foreigners were often more problematic than Chinese because they often overlooked the importance of vaccines and relied on drugs instead. The municipal authority, therefore, provided a wide range of free vaccinations for the poor and needy people regardless of their nationalities, and with such measures, sought to establish a stable urban sanitation system. This had been the key to the success of hygiene policies.

근대 동아시아 프로테스탄트 의료선교의 보편성과 특수성: 한·중 비교를 중심으로

조정은(Jo Jeongeun) 의료역사연구회 2019 의료사회사연구 Vol.4 No.1

이 논문의 목적은 근대 한·중 의료선교사업의 흐름을 비교 고찰함으로써 양국의 의료선교사업에 대한 이해를 높이고 동아시아적 관점에서 의료선교의 보편성과 특수성을 파악하기 위한 실마리를 찾는 것이다. 서로 이웃한 중국의 의료선교활동과 한국의 의료선교활동은 밀접한 관계에 놓여 있을 수밖에 없었다. 중화박의회의 지부로 한국의료선교협회가 설립되었다는 점은 중국에서의 의료선교 경험이 한국에서 의료선교를 수행해 나가는데 영향을 미쳤을 가능성이 있음을 보여준다. 한국과 중국의 의료선교사업 토착화 과정을 비교해 보면, 의료선교활동의 주체가 서양인 의료선교사에서 현지인으로 이행하는 모습은 중국이나 한국이나 다를 바 없음을 알 수 있다. 그러나 토착화의 움직임을 구체적으로 살펴본 결과, 중국과 한국 사이에 서로 다른 배경과 원인이 존재함을 알 수 있었다. 중국의 경우 제1차 세계대전과 뒤이은 세계대공황으로 인한 본국 교회의 지원 감소와 같은 외부적 요인과 함께 중국 내 민족주의와 반기독교 운동, 중국교회의 본색화[本色化, 토착화] 운동으로 토착화가 빠르게 진행되었다. 경제적으로 자립하기 위해 여유가 되는 사람에게는 치료비를 받고, 중국인이 미션계 병원이나 의학교의 주요 직책을 담당하기 시작한다. 한편 한국의 의료선교사업은 일제의 영향이 컸다. 식민지 정부는 의료를 일본의 영향력 아래 두고자 도립병원을 설립하고 의료선교 활동에 제약을 가하기 시작했다. 이러한 상황에서 의료선교사는 의료선교 본래의 목적을 지키기 위해서는 토착화가 필요하다고 생각하였다. 한국인 의사 수는 계속해서 증가하였고 경제적 자립을 위한 노력도 이어졌다. 그러나 식민지 정부의 영향력에서 벗어날 수는 없었다. 중국과 한국의 정치적 상황은 달랐으나, 서양인 의료선교사들이 기본적으로 품은 생각에는 큰 차이가 없었다. 현지에서 자신들은 매우 중요하고 필요한 존재이며, 자신들을 대체하기에 현지인의 능력이나 신앙이 아직 부족하다는 생각이었다. 그러나 의료선교사업의 토착화는 의료선교사의 예상과는 다른 방향으로 흘러갔다. 의료선교사들은 반강제적으로 자신들이 활동하던 선교지에서 떠나야 했고, 토착화의 끝은 혼란스러웠다. This study aims to better understand medical missionary works in China and Korea and find a clue to grasp universality and specificity of medical missionary works from an Eastern Asian perspective by comparing the flow of modern medical missionary works in Korea and China and considering. It was natural that medical missionary works in China and Korea that are adjoining were closely connected with each other. The establishment of The Korea Medical Missionary Association, as a Korean Branch of The China Medical Missionary Association, implies the possibility that the experiences of medical missionary works in China might influence medical missionary works in Korea. When comparing the indigenization process of medical missionary works in China and Korea, both China and Korea showed a the change in main doer of medical missionary works from Western medical missionaries to locals. But a detailed investigation of the indigenization aspects demonstrates there were different backgrounds and reasons between China and Korea. In the 1910s to 1920s, along with some external factors, including the decreased aid from home churches caused by the 1st World War and economic panics, the nationalism and the anti-Christian movement in China and the indigenous church movement of Chinese churches accelerated the indigenization. On the other hand, medical missionary works in Korea were absolutely influenced by Japan. The Japanese colonial government founded a provincial hospital and started putting restrictions on medical missionary works to exercise its influence over the Korean medical industry. Under this situation, medical missionaries recognized the need for the indigenization to achieve the original purpose of medical missionary works. Although the political situations in China and Korea were different, there was no big difference in the fundamental notions of Western medical missionaries. They believed they were very important and necessary locally and locals still lacked abilities or faith to substitute for themselves. However, the indigenization of medical missionary works developed against their expectations. Almost involuntarily, medical missionaries had to leave the mission fields and the end of the indigenization was confusing.

화학사고 후 장기 생태영향 원인물질 규명 기술 개발

조정만(Jungman JO),김나은(Naeun KIM),표희수(Heesoo Pyo),이정애(Jeongae Lee),유병용(Byeongyong You),오영탁(Youngtak Oh),함정엽(Jeongyup Ham),황유식(Yousik Hwang),오정은(Jeongeun Oh),배효관(Hyogwan Bae),전준호(Junho Jeon),최재영(Jayoung C 환경독성보건학회 2019 한국독성학회 심포지움 및 학술발표회 Vol.2019 No.4