당(唐) 선종(宣宗)의 정국 운영과 환관(宦官) 문제

류준형 ( Ryu¸ Junhyoung ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2022 사총 Vol.105 No.-

대중 연간 선종은 정치적 명분의 확대와 안정적인 국정 운영을 위해 가장 먼저 재상 세력의 인적 쇄신을 추진하였다. 관인 임명의 권한을 점진적이고 지속적인 형태로 활용하여 이덕유를 중심을 한 기존 세력을 권력의 중심에서 대거 배제했다. 환관에 대한 선종의 통제 노력은 권신에 대한 조치와 동일한 방식으로 진행되었다. 황제의 관직 임명권을 활용해 호군중위와 추밀사의 인선에 황제의 의지가 반영된 변화를 주어 환관 세력 내의 결속력을 약화시키고자 했다. 환관 문제의 처리는 선종에게 있어 국정 운영의 중요한 현안이었다. 대중 초기 선종과 환관 사이의 관계 양상은 대체로 안정적이었다. 특히 대중 5년을 전후하여 당항 문제의 처리 과정에서 확인되는 환관들의 활동과 그를 배경으로 한 정책 시행의 성공은 황제의 통치가 실현되는데 끼친 환관의 긍정적인 역할을 보여준다. 환관에 대한 선종의 통제력이 일정 수준에서 효과적으로 발휘되고 있었다. 그런데 선종의 집권 중후기, 대략 대중 8년을 전후한 시기에 이르면 환관에 대한 선종의 태도가 강경해진다. 이는 선종 스스로가 환관 세력을 자신의 통제하에 두었다고 인식한 결과의 표현이었다. 그러나 다수의 환관들에 대한 선종의 영향력은 문제되지 않았지만, 상대적으로 지위가 높은 환관 세력에 대한 통제는 완벽하게 이루어지지 못했다. 환관 세력을 통제하려는 선종의 노력이 궁극적으로 성공하지 못한 것은 환관 문제의 처리 방식에 대한 선종의 인식과 관련이 있다. 선종은 무력을 통해 환관을 주살하는 방식에 관심을 가졌고, 실제 재위 기간 동안 일정하게 이를 추진했다. 그러나 당시 환관들이 각종 활동을 통해 황제의 국가 통치를 수반하는 역할을 담당하고 있는 상황에서 무력을 통한 환관 문제의 해결은 현실적인 조건과 유리된 방식이었다. 결과적으로 이는 당 왕조의 점진적 쇠락이라는 대세적 흐름을 비가역적 상황으로 지속시키는 데 일조했다. The reign of Xuanzong was one of the last periods of revival in the second half of the Tang dynasty, which attempted political improvements during the decline of the dynasty. In order to strengthen the ruling power and maintain stable state management, Emperor Xuanzong first promoted the member renewal of the prime minister. In addition, by utilizing the anti-Li De Yu forces such as Baek Min-jung, basic conditions were established for the emperor-centered power management. Political stability and expansion of political power could be further consolidated by resolving the problem of the eunuchs, who played a decisive role in the process of Xuanzong’s enthronement. Xuanzong’s control efforts over eunuchs proceeded in the same way as measures against the prime minister. It was intended to weaken the solidarity within the eunuch forces by changing the selection of Hujunzhongwei and Shumishi by using the emperor's authority to appoint officials. In this process, the relationship between Emperor Xuanzong and eunuchs in the early days of the Dazhong period was generally stable. In particular, the activities of eunuchs confirmed in the process of dealing with the issue of Dangxiang around the 5th year of the Dazhong period and the success of policy implementation against the background show that Emperor Xuanzong’s control over eunuchs was effective at a certain level. Around the time of about eight years of the Dazhong period, Emperor Xuanzong’s attitude toward eunuchs becomes more strict. Emperor Xuanzong recognized that he had placed the eunuchs under his control. However, during the period of Dazhong, Emperor Xuanzong’s control over the eunuchs was not perfect. Control over the relatively high-status eunuchs was incomplete. The unsuccessful failure of Emperor Xuanzong’s efforts to control eunuchs has to do with Emperor Xuanzong’s perception of the way that the eunuch problem is handled. At that time, in a situation where the eunuchs were playing a role that accompanies the emperor's national rule through various activities, the way to solve the problem of eunuchs through military means was a method that was separate from the actual conditions.

배정유(裵庭裕)의 『동관주기(東觀奏記)』에 대한 사료적 검토와 역주(譯註)

류준형 ( Ryu Junhyoung ) 중국사학회 2021 中國史硏究 Vol.- No.130

Bae Jung-yu(Pei Ting-yu) participated in the compilation of the Annals of Emperor Seonjong(Xuanzong) at the order of the contemporary Emperor, but failed to complete the mission amid the chaotic social situation at the time. Dong gwan ju gi(Dong guan zou ji) was presented with the aim of supplementing the situation in which the actual records were absent and preparing records for future generations. Dong gwan ju gi describes the public year of Emperor Seonjong's reign called as Dae jong(Da zhong). The short-term characteristics of Dong gwan ju gi provide a very important basis for confirming historical facts of Dae jong period. Along with the fact that Bae Jung-yu participated in the compilation of the Annals, the condition that he personally spent his childhood with the Da jong period in person and experienced the period further enhances the historical credibility of Dong gwan ju gi. In addition, Dong gwan ju gi doubles the historical value in terms of Da jong period’s annual description. As the fact that Emperor Seonjong was also considered a ‘Junior Emperor Tae jong(Tai zong)’ in later generations suggests, his reign was a time of new changes and revival of Tang dynasty. Although the reign of Emperor Seonjong did not create a period of complete revival, it showed the possibility of anticipating the revival of the dynasty in the historical development leading to the collapse of the dynasty. The history of Tang dynasty contained in Dong gwan ju gi has more than just one dynasty’s history. The inverse of Dong gwan ju gi clearly shows this kind of historical value. It covers the entire reign of Emperor Seonjong from the first year of Dae jong period to the 13th year of Dae jong and also delivers historical facts that are not recorded in other sources. For example, the activities of Emperor Seonjong's birth mother, empress dowager Jung(Zheng) were vividly shown, and specific responsibilities were clearly stated in relation to the cause of death of empress dowager Gwak(Guo)'s death. It not only recorded the details of Lee gak(Li que)’s life, but also created the origin of the literary use of Golden Lotus candle(Jin lian hua zhu). In addition, the institutional operation, such as the preparation of “Deng gwa myung ki(Deng ke ming ji)”, is shown in detail to help understand the relevant system. Dong gwan ju gi VolumeⅠ alone clearly shows the historical characteristics and values of Dong gwan ju gi. The subsequent reverse of VolumeⅡ and Ⅲ will enable the complete implementation of the history contained in Dong gwan ju gi.

唐代 王言文書의 전달과 中使의 활동

柳浚炯(Ryu, Junhyoung) 동양사학회 2017 東洋史學硏究 Vol.141 No.-

The documents that contain the commands of the emperor during the Dang can be generally classified into 7 categories such as ‘Ceshu冊書’, ‘Zhishu制書’, ‘Weilaozhishu慰勞制書’, ‘Farichi發日勅’, ‘Chizhi勅旨’, ‘Lunshichishu論事勅書’, ‘Chidie勅牒’ depending on its content and purpose of use. Among these, ‘Ceshu’, ‘Zhishu’, ‘Weilaozhishu’ is delivered in the form of exclusive charging officer due to the separately designated envoy without the going through the subordinate offices. For the case of exclusive charging officer which delivers ‘Ceshu’, ‘Zhishu’, and ‘Weilaozhishu’ the classes of envoy are differentiated according to the importance of the documents and the status of envoy is more elaborate than the that of ‘Ceshu’. Not only the officials but also Eunuch ‘Zhongshi中使’ participated in delivering ‘Ceshu’, ‘Zhishu’, ‘Weilaozhishu’ The selection criteria is reflected in the sender of the document which corresponds to the will of the emperor. The extent of the emperor’s trust was what was mostly considered regarding the selection of the envoy. The emperor selects exclusive charging officer reflecting his personal faith degree for the clear announcement of the document with the secured conveyance that contains his will. In this circumstance, there was a high chance of margin that Eunuch ‘Zhongshi’ would be used for exclusive charging officer due its status distinctiveness. Because of this, the conveyance of document from Eunuch ‘Zhongshi’ has been continuously maintained throughout the history of the Dang dynasty. In this process, the conveyance of the Eunuch shows sorts of features. First of all, according to the rules, not only were there documents such as ‘Ceshu’, ‘Zhishu’, ‘Weilaozhishu’ that the exclusive charging officer were formerly in charge of delivering but also there were documents that had to be delivered that had been through the ‘Shangshu(du)sheng尙書(都)省’. Second, there were some documents from the Eunuch ‘Zhongshi’ that were delivered. Third, there was a tendency where the Eunuch ‘Zhongshi’ were exclusively in charge of conveyance according to the context of the documents. Fourth, The method of the delivery of the documents from the Eunuch ‘Zhongshi’ worked not as an individual contemporary step attempted sporadically, but as one independent document conveyance mechanism. If we consider the fact that the selection and operation for the conveying of the Eunuch ‘Zhongshi’ was done wholly by the personal will of the emperor, we can say that the document conveyance has contributed to the emperor seizing autocratic power.

『구당서(舊唐書)』, 「환관전서(宦官傳序)」·「고력사소전(高力士小傳)」 역주(譯註)와 환관 고력사

류준형 ( Junhyoung Ryu ) 한국중국학회 2018 중국학보 Vol.86 No.-

많은 역경을 거친 고력사(高力士)의 생애는 개인의 행적을 넘어 역사적 현상과 의미를 체현했다. 당대 환관들이 권력을 장악할 수 있었던 핵심적인 원인은 병권(兵權)의 장악이다. 그런데 군사권력의 실질적인 지배자가 아닌 고력사가 당대 환관 문제의 중요 인물로 고려되는 것은 그가 환관에 의한 권력 장악의 전형을 보여주기 때문이다. 『구당서(舊唐書)』 「환관전(宦官傳)」에 기록된 고력사의 행적에 근거해 다음의 사항들을 지적해 볼 수 있다.첫 번째, 고력사는 현종이 황위에 즉위하기 이전부터 황제를 시봉했고 이를 계기로 이후의 권력 장악을 진행할 수 있었다. 현종(玄宗) 시기 이후에는 중앙정치에 등장하는 권엄(權?)들의 상당수가 황제의 즉위 이전부터 개인적 친밀관계를 가졌다.두 번째, 고력사는 현종이라는 황제의 즉위 과정에 깊숙이 관여하고 적극적인 역할을 수행했다. 고력사 이후 황제의 즉위를 도운 환관이 새로운 황제의 집정시기에 권력자로 부상하는 현상이 반복 되었다.세 번째, 문서 행정을 장악했다. 황명이 담긴 문서를 전달하는 과정에서 국정과 관련된 문서 행정에 영향을 미쳤고, 점차 황제를 중심으로 운영되는 문서 행정에서 중요한 역할을 담당했다. 이러한 현상은 고력사의 활동 시기부터 분명해지고 점차 고정화되었다.네 번째, 황제에 대한 충성스러운 태도를 보였다. 황제에 대한 충성과 신뢰는 환관이 정치적 권력을 확대하는 중요한 배경이었다는데 고력사는 이러한 태도를 끝까지 유지했다. 당대 환관들이 권력을 장악하는데 있어 필수적 조건의 하나를 고력사가 보여주고 있다.고력사가 역사적으로 중요한 의미는 그가 환관의 발호(跋扈)를 대표한다는 것에 있는 것이 아니라 환관 세력이 성장하는 전형을 보여준다는 것에 있다. 이것이 바로 고력사에 대한 객관적이고 근본적인 검토가 필요한 이유이다. Having been through many adversities, the life of Gao Li-Shi embodied historical phenomena and meaning beyond personal behavior. The key factor for how the eunuch was able to hold power during the Tang dynasty period was the domination of the military forces. However, the reason for Gao Li-Shi, who was not the actual leader of military forces, being considered as a big person of the problem of eunuch at the time, is because this manifests as the prototype of Eunuch’s seizing power. Based on his activities according to the biography of Eunuch(宦官傳)’ on ‘Jiu Tang Shu(舊唐書)’, the following points can be pointed out.First off, Gao Li-Shi served the emperor before emperor Xuanzong(玄宗) was crowned on the throne. This condition allowed him to take control of his future power.After the period of emperor Xuanzong, a considerable number of the power Eunuch(權?) that appeared in the central politics have had a close personal relationship even before the imperial enthronements.Second, he deeply engaged and actively participated in the process of the emperor’s ascension of emperor Xuanzong. Since Gao Li-Shi, situations where the eunuch emerges as powerful men during the reign of the new emperors were repeated.Third, he dominated the document administration. He had an influence on the administration of state-related documents while delivering documents with imperial orders, and played an important role in the administration operated by emperors. This phenomenon became clear and gradually fixed since the time of the activities of Gao Li-Shi.Fourth, he showed his loyalty to the emperor. Showing loyalty and faith towards the emperor was a key thing in expanding political power, and he maintained to do this until the end. He shows one of the necessary conditions for the contemporary eunuch to take power.His historical significance is not that he represents the rampancy of the eunuch, but that it shows a model of the growth of it taking power. This is why an objective and fundamental review of Gao Li-Shi is necessary.

중국 宦官에 대한 영어권 학계의 연구 현황과 특징

류준형(Ryu, Junhyoung) 중국고중세사학회 2018 중국고중세사연구 Vol.50 No.-

So far, a lot of research reports regarding the Chinese eunuch have been published in the English academic field. Some of them successfully provided kinds of academically useful understandings. Although they expose limits in a certain degree, we are able to find distinct features of the English academic field. A key feature of the research results in the English area is the medical approach to the Chinese eunuch. This is one of the most striking features compared to other East Asian academia such as China, Japan, South Korea. Western medical doctors and government officials could individually meet and talk with the eunuch who served at the palace of the Qing dynasty in the late 19th century. They simultaneously obtained the in-depth information about the lifestyle and physical conditions of the eunuch. The second feature is that there had been emphasis on the objective view of understanding the eunuch from an early age. They first questioned the cause of the eunuch’s emergence and tried to establish its role in the management of the empire. Therefore, there is a strong tendency to understand the issues of the eunuch as a structural problem in the development of history. The third is that the research accomplishments of the English academic community have been disproportionately accumulated. Compared to the eunuch of Ming Dynasty, the research conditions of the Tang Dynasty are fairly small and the research results regarding the eunuch of the Han Dynasty are incredibly poor. The lack of syntactic access to the Chinese eunuch in the English academia is a clear indication of the unbalanced research work that was done at different time periods. So how can the research results of the English academia with these characteristics be used in the future? In the first place, it can be combined with the existing East Asian academic achievements to contribute to greater diversity in the study of the Chinese eunuch. In this respect, we can presume the possibility of a comparative analysis of eastern and western cultures for future events. This allows the consideration of the Chinese eunuch issues within the world history context. It can be seen either through analysis as part of a simultaneous phenomenon or by comparison of conditional similarities that differ from time to time. Next, it is likely to be used to expand the field of research on Chinese eunuch. We can overcome the problem that the existing East Asian academia maintained a politically biased view on the eunuch issues and develop new research perspectives. This approach could offer new possibilities for analyzing the eunuch problems from a social historic perspective, partly by transforming them from a political one.

배정유(裴庭裕)의 『東觀奏記』(中卷) 역주(譯註)와 사료적 의의

류준형 ( Ryu¸ Jun Hyoung ) 중국사학회 2022 中國史硏究 Vol.- No.136

As conflicting evaluations indicate, understanding and analysis of Da-Zhong period requires a more comprehensive approach. This is possible through cross-validation of various historical sources, but there are very few historical sources that convey the history of Da-Zhong period. Under these circumstances, the historical value of Dongguanzouji(東觀奏記) by Pei Tingyu(裴庭裕) is exceptional. Because, with the exception of Jiutangshu(舊唐書), Xintiangshu(新唐書) and Zizhitongjian(資治通鑑), which are the traditional books of Da-Zhong period, the one that remain intact as historical materials that fully describe the historical facts of Da-Zhong period is Dongguanzouji. In addition, the fact that Pei Tingyu directly participated in the compilation of the Annals further enhances the historical credibility of his description. Of course, there are also non-factual descriptions based on subjective perception in terms of personal work, but the fact that it presents specific cases that are difficult to understand without going through the contemporary period has high historical value. In terms of historical sourses, the second chapter of Dongguanzouji has some unique characters. First of all, it has a value as a unique record that is not confirmed in other sources. Second, the contents of Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji were used as the basis for records by other works of later generations. Third, Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji supplements the historical information of other extant sources. Lastly, Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji also contains information on institutional regulations. Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji not only conveys the historical facts of Da-Zhong period, but also includes the evaluation of Pei Tingyu’s moral value and public opinion evaluation within a certain range. This is to increase the historical value of Dongguanzouji.