당(唐) 후기 황위(皇位) 계승(繼承)의 양상(樣相)과 선종(宣宗)의 즉위 -장자(長子) 명분을 중심으로

柳浚炯 ( Ryu Jun Hyoung ) 중국사학회 2019 中國史硏究 Vol.0 No.123

The ascension of Emperor Xuan as the Huang Tai Shu(皇太叔) to the throne was a very exceptional phenomenon not just in the Tang Dynasty but also in the whole history of China. The existing research has studied in the perspective of the political participation of the Eunuch in the late Tang Dynasty, and as a result it was understood that the Eunuch who was deeply involved in the decision of the throne was to crown Emperor Xuan as the emperor for the purpose of seizing future power. However, should the situation prior and post to the accession of Emperor Xuan be considered, there is a possibility of another separate background that could have applied regarding the ascension. For this, there is the need for an understanding of the accession of Emperor Xuan in the continuum of succession to the throne. If we were to trace the aspect of succession to the throne that led from Emperor Xian, Emperor Mu, Emperor Jing and to Emperor Wu, it can be seen that the notion by which the Eldest son(長子) inherits the throne has been actively utilized. Furthermore, several coups and rebellions that occurred in the process also confirm the use of the concept of succession by the eldest son. Should we see this as the setting, Emperor Xian being able to ascend the throne as being the uncle of an emperor was because the cause identified by experience accumulated to that day or in other words, the concept of the eldest son to be the next in line to the throne was in common use. Interestingly, however, this aspect emerged while the Eunuch were directly involved in the succession of the throne. As the original explanation of the accession of Emperor Xuan shows, despite the logical assumption that the selection of a young heir would help the so-called eunuch political power, in reality, we are able to see that the selection of heirs to the throne with the justification as the Eldest son was applied in the late Tang Dynasty. This is in stark contrast to the situation in which the Eunuch in the late Han Dynasty took control by crowning an underage emperor themselves. In the latter part of the Tang Dynasty, it is also understood that the Eunuch attempted to strengthen their power on the basis of enthroning emperors that are of age.

唐代 中使의 활동과 그 정치적 의미

류준형(Ryu, Jun-hyoung) 호서사학회 2019 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.90

당대 환관(Eunuch)은 전통적으로 권력을 사유화하고 남용하는 부정적 존재로 인식되기도 했지만, 그 활동의 다양성으로 인해 보다 종합적인 측면에서 이해될 필요가 있다. 그런데 환관의 존재 근거가 황제라는 최고권력과의 관계 속에서 인정되는 만큼, 황제의 국가 통치 문제를 기반으로 한 환관의 분석시각은 가장 근원적인 접근 방법이라 할 수 있다. 환관의 일반적인 활동 상황을 가장 구체적으로 보여주는 것이 이른바 中使(Zhongshi)의 활동이다. 中使라는 명칭은 漢代(Han dynasty)에 처음 등장하는데 이후 지속적으로 사용되다 당대에 들어서는 환관 출사자(Envoy)에 대한 칭호로 專用되었다. 중사의 가장 기본적인 역할은 황제의 명령을 전달하는 것이었다. 이것을 바탕으로 황제와 관인 사이의 비공식적 개별 관계를 연결해주거나 황제의 개인적인 사무를 수행했다. 그런데 중사의 역할은 더 나아가 보다 실질적이고 직접적인 사무를 처리했다. 국외로의 황명(Emperor document) 전달 뿐만 아니라 국가의례나 민생구휼 및 형벌집행 등의 구체적인 사무도 직접 처리했다. 이러한 양상은 군사 및 외교 분야에도 이어졌다. 황제 개인을 중심으로 한 사적 영역 내에서 이루어진 중사의 활동이 국가 정무의 공적 영역에까지 확대되어 광범위하게 전개되었다. 한편, 황제의 국가 통치를 위한 정치 운영에도 중사들의 활동이 적극적으로 이루어졌다. 우선, 황제가 정치적 의사결정을 내리는데 있어 정확한 정보의 파악을 위한 중사의 활동이 활발했다. 중사가 확보한 정보는 황제의 정치적 의사결정에 중요한 영향을 미쳤다. 다음으로 중사는 황제의 권력 시행 과정에서 발생하는 정치적 문제상황을 해소하는데 활용되었다. 황제의 결정에 반대하는 관인(Official)에 대해 황제의 의도를 설명하고 이해를 구하는 역할을 수행하여 황제의 정치에서 발생할 수 있는 갈등을 완화하고 황권의 안정적이고 신속한 시행을 도모하는데 일조했다. 당대 중사들의 활동이 지속적으로 이루어지는 가운데 황제들은 중사에 대한 신뢰의 태도를 견지했다. 이것은 중사들이 활발하게 활동하는 기본 전제가 되기도 하는데 궁극적으로 황제와 중사 사이의 관계를 더욱 밀착시키는 결과를 보였다. 이렇듯 당대 중사들은 다양한 활동을 통해서 궁극적으로 당대 황제의 안정적인 권력 시행에 일정한 형태로 기여했다고 할 수 있다. While the Eunuch in the Tang dynasty was traditionally perceived as a negative entity who privatize and misuse power, we need to take it into account in a more comprehensive approach due to its diversity of activity. However, as the reason for the existence of Eunuch is recognized in relation to the supreme leader, the emperor, the analysis of the Eunuch based on the Emperor’s question of national governance would be the most fundamental approach. The activity of the ‘Zhongshi(中使)’ is what best describes the Eunuch’s general activity. The name ‘Zhongshi’ first appeared in the Han Dynasty, and was used continuously since then, but was used exclusively as a title only for Envoy from the Tang Dynasty. The most basic role of the Zhongshi was to deliver an order of the emperor. Through this, he would link the emperor and the officials’ informal personal relationship or carry out the emperor’s personal affairs. However, the Zhongshi dealt with more practical and personal work also. In addition to conveying the Emperor document to foreign countries, the Zhongshi also handled the nation rites or specific affairs such as the relief for the people and the execution of punishments as well. This aspect has also led to military and diplomatic fields. The Zhongshi’s activities within the private sphere, centered on the Emperor alone, developed widely and extended to the public sphere of national affairs. Meanwhile, the activities were also actively carried out in the political operation of the Emperor’s rule of the country. First of all, the Zhongshi was active in identifying accurate information that the emperor needed to make political decisions. The obtained information from the Zhongshi had a crucial effect on the political decision made by the emperor. Next, the Zhongshi was used to solve the political problems that arise in the process of the Emperor’s execution of power. He played a role in explaining the emperor’s intentions and asking for understanding to the officials who opposed to the emperor’s decisions, which helped ease possible conflicts and contributed to a stable and swift enforcement during the imperial regime. The emperor maintained a trust amid the ongoing activities of the Zhongshi in the Tang dynasty. This is also the basic premise where the Zhongshi is actively engaged and that it ultimately resulted in strengthening the relationship between the Emperor and the Zhongshi into an even more close one. As so, the Zhongshi of the Tang dynasty ultimately contributed to the stable execution of power by the Emperor through various activities.

배정유(裴庭裕)의 『東觀奏記』(中卷) 역주(譯註)와 사료적 의의

류준형 ( Ryu¸ Jun Hyoung ) 중국사학회 2022 中國史硏究 Vol.- No.136

As conflicting evaluations indicate, understanding and analysis of Da-Zhong period requires a more comprehensive approach. This is possible through cross-validation of various historical sources, but there are very few historical sources that convey the history of Da-Zhong period. Under these circumstances, the historical value of Dongguanzouji(東觀奏記) by Pei Tingyu(裴庭裕) is exceptional. Because, with the exception of Jiutangshu(舊唐書), Xintiangshu(新唐書) and Zizhitongjian(資治通鑑), which are the traditional books of Da-Zhong period, the one that remain intact as historical materials that fully describe the historical facts of Da-Zhong period is Dongguanzouji. In addition, the fact that Pei Tingyu directly participated in the compilation of the Annals further enhances the historical credibility of his description. Of course, there are also non-factual descriptions based on subjective perception in terms of personal work, but the fact that it presents specific cases that are difficult to understand without going through the contemporary period has high historical value. In terms of historical sourses, the second chapter of Dongguanzouji has some unique characters. First of all, it has a value as a unique record that is not confirmed in other sources. Second, the contents of Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji were used as the basis for records by other works of later generations. Third, Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji supplements the historical information of other extant sources. Lastly, Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji also contains information on institutional regulations. Chapter 2 of Dongguanzouji not only conveys the historical facts of Da-Zhong period, but also includes the evaluation of Pei Tingyu’s moral value and public opinion evaluation within a certain range. This is to increase the historical value of Dongguanzouji.

중국역사지리와 주진학(周振鶴)의 『체국경야지도(體國經野之道)』

류준형 ( Ryu Jun-hyoung ) 역사교육학회 2017 역사교육논집 Vol.62 No.-

Chinese historical geography was created very early in China. It is not difficult to see the historical and geographical records in Ancient Chinese literature. Early history and geography can be said to be established in the Ban Gu "Han Shu", "Di li Zhi". Since then, a variety of historical and geographical works have been published, and promoted the development of historical geography. As far as its development is concerned, in the Song Dynasty, historical geography was identified as an independent division of learning, in the Qing Dynasty it has been further developed. However, to the end of the Qing Dynasty, due to various reasons, the evolution of geography as the center of the history of geography began to decline, showing stagnation. At the beginning of the 20th century, modern geography was established in China, which also has a negative impact on the development of geographical evolution. However, the evolutionary geography with its far-reaching historical background can maintain the state of progress. In 1930`s, the evolution of geography has also seized the opportunity to develop within a certain limit. However, since the 20th century, the evolution of geography, which is based on boring content such as textual criticism, has been in a passive state, and could not break through the real contradictions and got new development. Since the 1980s, there have been different research tendencies in the evolutionary geography. Among them, Zhou Zhenhe`s research deserves attention. "Western Han Dynasty Geography" opened a new generation of evolution of the geographical development. The study made an objective retrospective study of long-established geographic knowledge, and proposed an evolutionary geographical change that is not known from previous literature and archaeological data. Since then, Zhou Zhenhe also published "The way of `Ti Guo Jing Ye` - a new perspective of the history of the evolution of China`s administrative divisions." This book took the administrative area `level`, `the area`, `the boundary` as the analysis frame, pointed out each aspect the development vein as well as the change reason and the rule. This book also made the evolution of geography more developing in a new level and providing new understanding. In addition, Zhou`s research is concerned with the relationship between centralization and local decentralization, which also contributes to the emergence and perfection of a new subject of "political-political geography".

당대(唐代) 문서행정의 일면(一面): 금중(禁中) 문서의 작성과 활용에 대한 시탐(試探)

류준형 ( Jun Hyoung Ryu ) 대구사학회 2016 대구사학 Vol.122 No.-

唐代는 三省을 골간으로 한 행정시스템에서 행정문서가 작성되고 유통되었다. 그러나 국가권력의 頂点에 황제가 있다는 사상은 황제 개인의 정치적 권위를 강화했고 이를 바탕으로 행정제도의 권위와 합법성에 앞서는 황제의 권력 정당성이 인정될 수 있었다. 이것의 연장선에서 三省의 국가행정제도와 직접적 관련이 없는 문서가 禁中에서 작성되어 유통되었다. 황제는 宮中에서 臣僚에게 자신의 의사를 전달하거나 의견을 교환하는데 外朝의 문서행정시스템의 영향을 받지 않는 형태의 문서를 작성하여 사용했다. 그 구체적인 대상으로는 宰相 집단과 翰林學士를 들 수 있다. 당대 황제는 환관을 통해서 이들에게 자신의 意向이 담긴 이른바 聖旨를 전달했다. 이것은 賜物을 행하는 수단으로 활용되기도 했으며 동시에 이를 통해 황제의 정치적 명령이나 정보를 전달했다. 이러한 문서의 전달은 內侍省의 長官인 內侍에 의해 주로 수행되었고 일부 사안의 경우에는 업무관련자에 해당되는 환관이 전달을 맡기도 했다. 禁中에서 황제의 의지에 따라 작성된 문서들은 宮中이 사용에 한정되지 않았다. 이러한 문서들은 宮外 사안의 처리에도 활용되었는데 황제의 恩賜를 비롯해 개별적 관계에서의 私的 소통을 위한 목적뿐만이 아니라 행동을 지시하는 皇命의 전달을 위해서도 기능했다. 이러한 문서들은 外朝 관료들의 반대에도 불구하고 장기간 활용되었다. 문서의 전달에는 환관들이 역할을 맡았고 이로써 황제와 受書者 사이는 직접적으로 연결되었다. 문서의 전달 과정은 ‘황제’-‘환관’-‘受書者’로 이어지는 단선적 일원관계를 구성했다. 문서의 전달 과정은 分節化하는 모습을 보이지 않았고 전달자 1인에 의해서 전달이 완수되었다. 이처럼 禁中에서 작성된 문서가 일정한 영역을 확보하며 기능했다는 사실에 대한 고찰을 통해 唐代 문서행정의 감춰진 一面을 확인할 수 있다. 이러한 형태의 문서행정이 운영되었던 목적은, 문서의 발신자와 수신자를 일대일의 직접적인 관계로 연결한다는 그 시행상의 특징이 말해주듯 황제가 권력의 직접적인 시행을 추구하는 의도와 맥락을 같이 한다고 판단된다. 唐朝采取了以三省爲骨幹的行政制度,運營了國家行政體系。在統治權力的正當性出於皇帝個人的傳統政治思想之下,行政文書包含著皇帝命令的權威,發揮了政治效力。這些情況使傳統王朝更爲註重行政文書的造書過程以及行政管理。 不過,所謂的皇帝處於國家權力的頂點的思想自然導致了皇帝個人政治權力的提高。在此情況下,皇帝個人權力正當性往往超出了行政制度的權威和其所內含的合法性。在此沿線上,唐代文書行政還造出了國家行政制度的令壹面,這就是說,沒有涉及外朝行政機制的文書出現於禁中,還流傳到宮內外。 在宮中,皇帝爲了把自己的意旨傳給臣僚個人,還交換意見,願意使用與外朝行政制度無有關系的文書。說起宮內情況,這些文書的使用範圍主要限於宰相和翰林學士。皇帝通過宦官的轉達作用發出文書。這些文書不僅用於賜物工作,還用於皇帝的政治性命令或信息。目前無法看到文書的原件,但根據相關史料的記錄,可以了解到文書的使用事實。在皇帝與宰相、翰林學士之間的文書傳達工作中,主要是內侍省長官內侍負責傳達,在個別情況下,其他宦官以實務者的身憤亦可以擔任傳達工作。 在禁中成立的文書幷不限於宮內使用,還流傳到宮外。在其過程中,文書執行了皇帝的恩賜作用、私的交流以及政治命令的傳達作用。不過,文書宮外流通之後,就遭到外朝官人的批評和指責,是因爲文書本身缺乏外朝行政制度所代表的合法性。卽使如此,禁中發出的文書被長期使用。與文書的宮內轉到情況相比,宮外的情況沒有根本性的差別,也是宦官擔任了傳達文書的工作。從此,皇帝可以握有與受書者之間的直接聯絡途徑。 從禁中發出的文書基本上由皇帝親自寫成,但也有皇帝身邊的宦官代替完成。値得註意的是,無論皇帝還是皇帝信任宦官寫完文書,這些文書的傳達過程構成著‘皇帝’-‘宦官’-‘受書者’又單線又壹元的連接關系。在文書傳達過程中,無有出現文書傳達者的分節化現象,傳達者壹人始終完成該工作。 總之,唐朝建立以來,沒有經過外朝行政造書機制的文書成立於禁中,流傳到宮內外。在其過程中,宦官發揮了傳達作用。這些文書的使用十分說明唐代行政機制的令壹面,也就是說,禁中出發文書的客觀存在。這壹行政空間的確保與皇權直接發揮的意圖有著緊密關系。 (Yeungnam University department of history, Ryu jun hyoung / korchin@ynu.ac.kr)

‘互動’과 ‘擴散’ : 동아시아 학술교류의 새로운 무대

류준형(Ryu Jun Hyoung) 중국고중세사학회 2016 중국고중세사연구 Vol.39 No.-