신배석의 SWL시 요석의 위치에 따른 배출율의 차이

윤철용,김동선,이정구 大韓泌尿器科學會 1999 Korean Journal of Urology Vol.40 No.2

동아시아 모전석탑의 기원에 대한 소고(小考)

김준영 동아시아문물연구소 2014 文物硏究 Vol.- No.26

흔히들 중국의 석탑을 언급할 때에는 ‘四門塔’(611)을 대표적인 예로 꼽는다. 이 탑은 방형의 괴체 마름돌로 쌓아 만든 단층 석탑으로서 현재까지 전해지고 있는 중국의 전탑과 석탑 중 가장 이른 예로 알려져 있다. 그런데 이 탑이 건립된 이후에도 8세기 이전에 쌓기식 방법으로 조성된 중국의 석탑은 2층을 넘지 않는 규모로 한정되는 반면, 고층식의 불탑은 하나같이 전탑으로 조성되어 있다. 이것은 ‘사문탑’과 거의 동시대에 건립된 신라의 ‘분황사석탑’(634)이 다층고탑형(多層高塔形)으로 조성된 것과 비교되는 특징이다. 아마도 모전석탑이라는 새로운 불탑 양식에 대한 인식과 관련이 있으며, 결국 벽돌과 방형 석재에 대한 인식에서 비롯되었기 때문일 것이라고 생각된다. 『대당서역기(大唐西域記)』에 언급되고 있는 인도 불탑의 상당수는 아육왕탑으로서 방형의 마름돌로 쌓은 석탑이 많았지만, 각 지역의 기후와 자연환경에 맞추어 돌이 아닌 다른 재료로 조성되기도 했다. 인도의 불탑이 중국으로 전해지면서 7세기 초에 중국에도 ‘사문탑’처럼 방형 마름돌을 이용한 불탑이 제작되었으며 적어도 7세기 중엽까지 방형의 마름돌과 소성벽돌은 각각 ‘塼石’과 ‘甎石’으로 불렸다. 또한 7세기 중엽에 건립된 ‘대안탑(大雁塔)’은 원래 인도의 새로운 건축법을 이용하여 석탑으로 조성하고자 했지만 공사의 어려움을 우려한 국왕의 명령으로 부득이 전탑으로 고쳐 건립되었다. 이를 통해 7세기 중엽까지도 중국에서는 비록 전탑 조축의 경험이 충분히 쌓여 있었음에도 방형의 마름돌을 쌓아 고층탑을 만드는 방식은 전탑과는 달리 일반화되어 있지 않았음을 알 수 있다. 따라서 이러한 이유로 ‘塼石’을 이용한 탑형은 2층 이하의 규모에 한정되었던 것으로 보인다. 여기에는 7세기 초 수(隋)왕실의 적극적인 대외교섭 과정에 전해진 방형 마름돌을 쌓아 만드는 방식과 단층형 인도 스투파의 형식이 불탑 조축법의 원형으로 인식되어 중국 석탑 조성에 영향을 미친 것으로 생각된다. When people often mention Chinese stone pagodas, they show the Four-Gates Pagoda(四門塔(611)) as a typical example. This has been known as the oldest pagoda in the Chinese brick and stone pagodas which have been handed down until now as a one-storied stone pagoda. By the way, the Chinese stone pagodas created by the stacking method before the 8th century were limited to the size which did not exceed two stories even after this pagoda was built, while high-rise pagodas were all created by brick pagodas. These characteristics are compared with the Stone Pagoda of Bunhwnagsa Temple which was built almost contemporarily in the Silla Dynasty and by the multistory type (多層高塔形). Probably, it is thought that this is related to awareness about the new pagoda pattern called stone brick pagoda and it’s because it eventually came form awareness about bricks and square stone. Many Indian pagodas mentioned in 『The Record of Travels to Western Lands』(Da Tang Xi-Yu-Ji : 大唐西域記) include a lot of pagodas which accumulate square ashlar as Ayuwangta, but they were created by other materials, not stone, to meet climate and natural environment of each area. As the Indian pagodas are spread out to China, The pagodas which used square ashlar like ‘the Four-Door Pagoda’. And square ashlar and plastic stone were, at least, called ‘boulder stone(塼石)’ and ‘bricks(甎石)’ until the middle of the 7th century. And Dayan Pagoda(大雁塔) which was built in the middle of the 7th century originally tried to be created by the stone pagoda with a new Indian architecture method. It was inevitably changed and built to the brick pagoda by an order of the king who was worried about difficulties of construction work. It is thought that Chinese technical skills to create high rise stone pagodas by the method which accumulates ashlar were not secured until the middle of the 7th century. Therefore, for this reason, the tower types which used boulder stone(塼石) were limited to the size which is less than two stories. It is thought the method which accumulates square ashlar and create pagodas and the one-story Indian stupa type transferred in the foreign negotiation process of Su(隋)’s royal family in the beginning of the 7th century had an effect on creation of Chinese pagodas as they were recognized as the origin of the method to build pagodas.

통일신라시대 석탑의 기단 결구방식에 대하여 - 7∼8세기 석탑을 중심으로 -

이근우 부산경남사학회 2007 역사와 경계 Vol.63 No.-

The big foundation is typical of the stone stupas in Unified Silla period. Additionally, many stupas have two-story platform. Rectangular platform is constructed with several slabstones(面石) and covered by uppermost stones like carapace(甲石). Imitating wooden construction style, the pillar-shaped carvings are engraved on the both corners(隅柱) and central part(撐柱) of each side. In this paper, the stone pagoda's styles are categorized by the number of used stones and the ways to assemble the foundation. According to the number of stones in the lower platform, the pagodas with 12 stones is called as Ⅰtype, 8 stones as Ⅱ type, 4 stones as Ⅲ type, fewer than 4 stones as Ⅳ type. Each type is classified also by the number of stones and carapace stones used in the lower and upper platforms. 12-12-12-8 means the number of panel stones in the lower platform-the number of carapace stones in lower platform-the number of panel stones in the upper platform- the number of carapace stones in upper platform, and 0 indicates the uniting of the slabstone and carapace stone. In certain cases, the ways to assemble the stones are different in spite of the same number of stones. For that reason, the platform with L shape prop stone is classified as A type and the platform with only straight slabstones as B type. As a result, the stone pagodas in the Unified Silla period show the decrease in the numbers of stones used in the platform and uniting tendency in the panel stone 8-8-4-4and the carapace stone. This classification will be useful to describe the present state of pagodas and to determine the construction time of pagodas.

房山石經, 契丹大藏經, 그리고 高麗大藏經

하정민 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2020 한국문화 Vol.0 No.91

Located in the Fangshan district in the southwest of Beijing, the Yunju temple contains a collection of stone-carved Buddhist scriptures. These stone-carved scriptures which are engravings of Buddhist sutras on stone slabs, are called the Fangshan Stone Sutras. The carving of the Buddhist scriptures on stone at Fangshan began in the early seventh century and continued until the seventeenth century. In particular the Liao dynasty witnessed a large-scale stone-carved sutra project at Fangshan in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The stone sutras carved during this period were based on the text versions printed from the new Liao Canon (Khitan Canon or Qidan Canon). The Liao Canon was a complete collection of Buddhist scriptures compiled and carved on wooden blocks in the eleventh century, but it is not extant. The Fangshan Stone Sutras executed during the dynasty are fundamental in order to delve into real aspects of the Liao Canon and its relationship with the Goryeo Canon. This study closely examines the Fangshan Stone Sutras executed during the Liao dyansty, as a preliminary attempt to explore features and characteristics of the Liao Canon. To understand the Fangshan Stone Sutras executed during the dyansty, this paper looks into the formation and development of stone-carved sutras at Fangshan. This paper also explores the motivation of the creation of the stone-sutras and their original texts on which the stone sutras were based, from the seventh to seventeenth century. A great number of stone-carved sutras created during the Liao dynasty are handed down at Fangshan, and thus a close investigation on the stone-carved sutras will bring little known aspects of the Liao Canon to light. Importantly a very small number of printed copies from the Liao Canon were discovered in a wooden pagoda in Ying County, Shanxi province in China recently. The comparison of some printed texts from the wooden pagoda to the Fangshan Stone Sutras during the Liao dynasty reveals the fact that the texts of the copies were almost identical, but the scale, format and style of them were different. In particular, the scale of the stone sutras is a bit larger than that of the wooden pagoda pieces. This discrepancy in scale indicates that scripts for stone sutras at Fangshan had to be rewritten to adjust to the size of the stone slabs. Other important pieces of reference for research on the Liao Canon are Sugi's Collation Notes on the second edition of the Goryeo Canon finished around the mid-13th century. Considering several pieces of information obtained by comparing the extant texts from the wooden pagoda in Ying County to the stone-carved sutras at Fangshan, this paper focuses on Sugi’s notes on the corresponding Buddhist scriptures included in the second Goryeo Canon. A careful analysis of Sugi's notes about the specific texts appears to confirm the accuracy and reliability of Sugi’s notes and suggest a distinct characteristic of the Liao Canon that are different from other Buddhist canons. .

탐라-제주 石築 文化의 始原과 傳承

전영준 인하대학교 한국학연구소 2023 한국학연구 Vol.- No.70

Stone-masonry culture in Jeju demonstrated through the fortress and the abode for local government officials as typical examples had began with the stone-made structure on Keumsung-Ri that was built in the early period of Tamla and is now only remains. This stone culture had been accumulated and inherited. Housing type in the late 7th century in Jeju was the architectural form on the ground with stonewall and thatched-roof. It could be inferred that this residence type did not appear all of sudden, and thus had been made in the earlier time. In sum, the site of Keumsung-Ri can be thought of an original form of housing type with stonewall, which shows that there had already been stone-masonry culture in the period of Kingdom of Tamla. Known from the example of Keumsung-Ri site built in the early period of Tamla (three Kingdoms period), constructing the stonewalls around dry field (farm) by judge Kim Koo was based on the stone-masonry culture which had been utilized from the early period of Tamla. Stonewall, which was a stone-made structure marking boundary, had a function of protecting the residential area or village. In this context, constructing stonewall around fields have a historical significance of spreading stone culture and making it rooted in everyday life The long wall surrounding seashore(Hwanhaejangsung) had been the structure of military defense till the late period of Chosun. The long wall built by Korye army in order to obstruct Sambyulcho(Korye’s special forces, and rebels at that time)’ invasion, had been militarily utilized as a supplementary facility with the site for beacon fire. However, it is disputable to think of the long wall surrounding seashore as a beginning of architectural culture without recognizing its origin from the time of the Kingdom of Tamla. Nevertheless, unfortunately the interpretation that stone culture or stone-masonry culture in Jeju had been transferred from outside and then diffused has been widely spread. It is mistaken to investigate the long wall without recognizing the difference between the constructing style in Korye and it, and the specific stone-masonry culture shared by Jeju people who were mobilized in constructing the long wall. It was almost impossible for Korye army or Sambyulcho alone to build the long wall. All of Seong-seok(城石), Stones used for walls(面石), the stone that fills the inside of the wall(채움석), in the long wall were made out of Jeju basalt, and then it meant that the long wall was built with stones nearby rather than the materials taken from other places. Basalt being porous was very different from stones from Korean Peninsular. Therefore, the Korye army and Sambyuncho, in the process of building the long wall, had to mobilized Jeju people who already had their own architectural culture based on basalt since the early period of Tamla. 제주의 대표적 석축문화로 볼 수 있는 성곽과 관방에 대한 석축 사례는 이미 탐라전기에 축조되어 활용되었을 것으로 보이는 금성리 석축유적부터 축적되어 온 돌문화의 전승에서 비롯하였다. 7세기 후반 탐라의 주거 형태는 지상식 주거지로 주거지 경계에 돌담을 두르고 풀로 지붕을 엮었다고 할 수 있다. 이러한 주거 형태가 갑자기 나타나지 않는 이상 그 이전부터 이용되었을 것이다. 즉, 금성리 유적은 원형의 돌담집 자리로 여겨지며, 제주도에는 탐라국 시기에 이미 돌을 이용한 석축 문화가 존재하였음을 보여준다고 할 수 있다. 또한 판관 김구의 밭담 수축은 탐라전기(삼국시대)에 수축된 것으로 보이는 금성리 유적의 수축에서 알 수 있듯이, 이전 시기인 탐라 전기부터 활용되어 온 석축 문화에 기인하는 것으로 주거지 보호나 마을 보호 등의 경계 석축의 원용을 통해서 생활문화의 저변을 확장시켰다는 점에서 역사문화적 의의를 찾을 수 있다. 아울러 환해장성이 제주에 처음 등장한 이후 조선 후기까지 활용되었던 중요한 관방시설이었다. 특히 삼별초의 제주 진입을 막기 위해 고려 관군에 의해 축조된 환해장성이 조선시대에서는 연대와 봉수 등의 군사적 기능을 강화하기 위한 보조수단으로 활용되었다. 그런데 환해장성의 축조가 제주 축성문화의 시원처럼 묘사되고 있어서 탐라국 시기의 축성문화는 없었던 것으로 이해되고 있다. 그로 인하여 제주의 돌 문화 또는 석축 문화는 외부의 문화전파로 형성되었다는 시각의 확산을 가져왔다. 그러나 환해장성의 축조는 기존의 고려시대 축성과는 차이가 있고, 축성에 동원된 제주민들도 고유의 석축 문화를 향유하고 있었다는 점을 간과한 채 환해장성을 연구하고 있는 현상이 보인다. 환해장성의 축조는 고려군과 삼별초군만으로는 진행하기 어려웠을 것이다. 환해장성의 성석이나 면석, 채움석 모두 제주도산 현무암을 사용하고 있는데 이는 다른 장소에서 석재를 가져와 성을 축조한 것이 아닌 환해장성이 설치된 주변 해안의 석재를 이용한 것이다. 제주도의 다공질 현무암은 한반도 내의 석재와 그 성질이 달라 성곽을 축조하는데 있어 어려움이 있기 때문이다. 결국 고려군과 삼별초군이 환해장성을 축조하는 과정에는 탐라전기부터 현무암을 활용하는 석축문화를 가지고 있었던 제주민들이 동원되지 않고서는 이룰 수 있는 일이 아니었다.

무덤 석조물을 통해 본 문화변이 : 중국수입석조물을 중심으로

허용무 ( Yong Moo Heo ) 한국사진학회 2009 AURA Vol.0 No.21

The culture of stone has appeared as various shapes and also remains to any race to the extent of being said that the history of human race was started from the stone. the stone was remained as countless pieces of work on this earth as transcendental symbol at times, magnificent or refined models at times and beautiful sculptures at times. As buddhism has been adopted at the latter period of age of Three Kingdoms, the agnificent stone structures of buddhism were mass produced. The stone art has reached a mature stage encountering this time period and the peak of stone art has been reached during unified Shilla. Most magnificent artworks of Korean stone art such as Seokuram and Dabotap have been made at this time. The buddhism the end of age of Three Kingdoms and Joseon dynasty had encountered a sudden decline due to buddhism repression policy while the stone art of buddhist style had also suddenly shrunk so that the stone structures based on royal tombs are being handed down by forming a mainstream. Since the latter half of 1990`s, China is taking up the first place in the entire stone manufacturing industry such as manufacture, consumption and export in the field of stone manufacturing industry while rising as the powerful nation of world`s building stone exports. The situation is that the dependence toward stone products made in China is getting higher. Although the quality gets better than Chinese product if the rough stone is brought in and processed in our country, the cost of manufacture can only go up. Therefore, the stone market of our country has become a structure of having to bring in inexpensive Chinese made finished products and fell as the retailer of Chinese stone market. As the inexpensive stone structures were brought in as from of finished products from China, the reality is that they are quickly replacing the tomb stone structures of our country. We who have given up stone construction culture by a justification called stone manufacturing industry got to lose the brilliant tracks of stone tower structures in the past as well as the creative insight and technology tower stone tower art. This thesis has recorded the situation of our country`s tomb stone structures being replaced as the Chinese produced inexpensive finished products were brought in by mass quantity along with collapse of stone industry in our country while trying to examine the examples of cultural change through changes of tomb stone construction styles.

요관석에 대한 In-situ 체외충격파쇄석술 시 조영제의 정맥 주사에 의한 요석 위치 선정

한지엽,임성욱,송기근,문영태 大韓泌尿器科學會 1999 Korean Journal of Urology Vol.40 No.3

동아시아의 돌 신화와 여신 서사의 변형 - 모석(母石)·기자석(祈子石)·망부석(望夫石)을 중심으로 -

조현설 한국구비문학회 2013 口碑文學硏究 Vol.0 No.36

Mircea Eliade discovered the archetypical image that expresses absolute being, life and sacredness in the stone. But a stone myth is one form of the ideological language that expresses a certain social form through various mythical narratives. The stone in east asian myth became accepted as sacred mother stone. This is the product of a matrilineal society. Original myth of human being or acertain tribe was originated from the stone expresses that kind of understanding. At that time, the goddess appeared in a stone form which identified with ‘a mother stone’ in some cases, but in other cases the goddess appear in ‘a stone & goddess’ form discretely. However, the stone which transformed into the phallus stone was worshipped as ancestral god in a patrilineal society. And This stone transformed into kija-stone, that is a stone praying son in conjunction with male dominance. At the same time this stone transformed into mangbu-stone, that is the stone on which a faithful wife stood waiting for her husband until she perished. 엘리아데는 돌에서 생명을 표현하는 원형적 이미지를 발견했다. 그러나 돌 신화는 원형을 넘어 다양한 변형체를 통해 특정한 사회 형태를 표현하고 고착화하려고 하는 이데올로기적 언어의 한 형태이다. 동아시아 돌 신화에서 돌은 모석으로 인식되어 왔는데, 이는 모계사회의 소산이다. 이 인식은 돌에서 인류나 특정 종족이 비롯되었다는 기원신화를 통해 표현된다. 이때 여신은 모석과 동일시되어 돌의 형태로만 등장하기도 하고, 분리되어 여신-돌이라는 이원적 형식으로 나타나기도 한다. 그러나 부계사회에서 돌은 남성적 원리를 상징하는 남근석으로 변형되어 조상신으로 숭배되기도 한다. 이런 돌 신화와 사회의 관계에서 보면 부여계 건국신화의 신화소인 돌 위에 앉은 유화나 곤연의 바위 아래에서 출현한 금와의 형상, 그리고 제주도의 당신화인 와산리 불돗당의 돌 위에 내려온 여신 불또삼승또의 형상은 모석 신화가 제의의 조건이나 신화의 형태에 따라 변이되어 표현된 것이라는 추론이 가능하다. 유화와 불또삼승또의 신화가 여신-돌(모석)의 형식이라면 금와 신화는 돌(모석)의 형식이다. 그런데 모석은 남성지배의 강화와 더불어 기자석으로 변형된다. 동시에 아이를 업고 돌아오지 않는 남편을 하염없이 기다리는 돌, 망부석으로 변형되기도 한다. 모석의 서사에는 생명의 근원이라는 원형적 이미지만이 아니라 창세신화와 여신 서사의 역사적 변모의 정황이 동시에 새겨져 있다.

자연석 사용 개선을 위한 설계 및 시공 기준 설정에 관한 연구

구본학,김용규,안동만 한국조경학회 1999 韓國造景學會誌 Vol.27 No.4

Stone is one of the oldest material for construction and artistic works. This study investigates the current use of stones in landscape constructional works, and the design criteria to advance the arts of natural stone arrangements. Thirty four experts and thirty two others were surveyed with various photos of simulated construction works of natural stone arrangements fond improved design guidelines. Major findings are as follows: -The payment for the use of stones ranges approximately 5 to 10% of total cost of landscape constructional works. More stones may be used when better retailing system is introduced, working skill is standardized, and more of the substitute natural stones made of blasted rocks are provided and the cost goes down. -Preferences showed little difference for the mixed use of different sizes, colors and shapes of stones, and for the use of similar ones, in the construction of walls. This does not match with the current design guidelines. -Arranging three stones, which symbolizes heaven, earth, and human being, was the most preferred. As the supply of natural stones is limited and more substitute stones are used, it its needed to establish guidelines for the production of substitute stones. -Grasses are much more preferred between pavement stones than mortars. -In current practices, top of piled up natural stones is usually arranged level. More freely curved top lines are preferred to straight line.

朝鮮時期 麗水의 石堡와 石(堡)倉

변동명 호남사학회 2008 역사학연구 Vol.33 No.-

In the early Choseon dynasty there existed in Yeosu a small stone fortress, which was called a fort made up of stone. This fortress was known as the current storage remains of a stone fortress(石倉城址), a leading form of which was the muddy fortress enclosed by a wooden fence in Yeosu. The fortress which was built by the time King Taejo was presumably crowned before the King Taejong 15th year of his reign (1415) in the early Choseon dynasty was the first government office of Yeosu prefecture. Then it was put to use only for defending against Japanese pirates after Yeosu was integrated into Suncheon, so that it might well be the very place where Bonggye-dong mud fortification was adjacent to the storage remains of a stone fortress. When the initial stone fortress in Yeosu was out to be built was about Seojong the Great 27th year of his reign(1445), and it was completed by the concrete promotion triggered in the King Munjong 2nd year of his reign(Danjong's accession to the throne in 1542) before the King Sejo 3rd year of his reign(1457). Its construction involved defending against Japanese pirates newly instead of the decaying muddy fortress with a wooden fence. This was because the fortress set in the current storage remains of a stone fortress was close to the sea, part which was a densely populated district. The fortress in Yeosu was, thus, a night watchman's room belonging to the army under the Byeongmasa(the military commanders). The stone fortress in Yeosu was innovated in the King Jungjong 17th year of his reign(1522), so that the soldiers moved into Dolsan garrison in the vicinity of it, according to which the core of zone defense was reorganized around the Navy Command of Left Cholla and the garrison of Bangdap in Dolsan island. After this, the stone fortress was diverted to a warehouse facility for managing the system of grain loans in about the middle 16th century. The structure of the fortress of which even the name was renamed Seokchang(the storage of a stone fortress). Seokchang had come to the end of its destiny as a public facility, with the abolition of the Grain Loan System(Hwan'gok-je) at the end of the Choseon dynasty. The floating population all over Seokchang was so dense that a private market would already be established. This market, one of private markets first established throughout the areas of Suncheon and Yeosu, was one of average size. 조선전기 麗水에 石堡라 불리는 소규모의 석축 보루가 있었다. 현재의 石倉城址가 그곳인데, 그 선구적인 존재가 여수 木柵塗泥城이었다. 조선초 태종 15년(1415) 이전 아마도 태조가 즉위하던 즈음 축조된 이 목책도니성은, 처음 여수현의 治所였다. 그랬다가 여수가 순천으로 통합된 후에는 왜구 방어시설로만 사용되었으며, 석창성지 인근의 봉계동토성이 곧 그곳일 가능성이 높았다. 여수 석보는 세종 27년(1445) 무렵 처음 그 축조가 결정되었으며, 문종 2년(단종 즉위, 1452)의 구체적 추진을 계기로 세조 3년(1457) 이전 언젠가 완성되었다. 퇴락한 목책도니성을 대신할 새로운 왜구 방어시설로서였다. 이 석축의 보루가 석창성지에 들어선 것은, 바다 가까이에 위치한 데다 그 일원이 옛 여수현의 치소로서 인구가 밀집된 곳이기 때문이었다. 여수 석보는 兵馬使 휘하의 陸軍에 속한 關防이었다. 여수 석보는 중종 17년(1522)에 혁파되고, 그 군병은 이웃의 돌산진으로 옮겨갔다. 지역방어의 중심이 全羅左水營과 防踏鎭을 축으로 재편된 데 따른 조치였다. 이후 16세기 중반 즈음 석보는 還穀을 관리하는 창고시설로 전용되었다. 명칭마저 석(보)창으로 바뀐 이 석축구조물은, 조선말 환곡제가 폐지되면서 그 공적인 시설로서의 운명을 마감하였다. 석(보)창 일대에는 거주인구와 유동인구가 상당하였다. 17세기 초반 즈음 벌써 場市가 개설될 정도였다. 순천과 여수지역을 통틀어 최초로 개설된 3곳 중의 하나였던 이 장시는, 전라도 동부지역에서 평균적인 규모의 크기였다.