고려 佛具의 의미와 제작기법 : 宇鶴文化財團 소장품을 중심으로

안귀숙 용인대학교박물관 2006 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.10

Used to make Buddhist sanctum solemn and hold various rituals and Buddhist offering in six ways, Buddhist Ritual Instruments are not only religious practical instruments, but the mediums spiritually functioning to save human beings by leading them into the solemn world of Buddha. Accordingly, the methods to use the instruments have been prescribed according to the Vinaya(Buddhist teachings) and Buddhist monks were strictly equipped with the necessaries such as robes, wooden rice bowls, sprinklers and incense burners, by order of the precept that when leaving for Dhuta(頭陀), they must always "carry, like bird wings,"eighteen articles of Mahayana monks with them. Most of the Buddhist Ritual Instruments at the Woohak Cultural Foundation were manufactured in the Goryeo Dynasty era, when various kinds of Buddhist crafted products were made and the products were excellent in molding, decoration and technique thanks to the development of Esoteric Buddhist rituals, thus enabling to grasp Korean Buddhist arts at a glance. Buddhist Instruments are divided into ritual instruments temple bell, buddhist ritual bell and bath plate for baby Buddha statue, offering instruments incense burner, incense jar, candle stick and sprinkler and solemn instruments gilt bronze plaque on the Nirvana illustration, sarira reliquary and gilt bronze miniature pagoda, guardian Buddha statues and gold tube for sutra, adjuncts belonging to a royal palace, Sutra box's ornaments, and so on. Temple bells are typical ones of the late Goryeo Dynasty era, which have standing flower pattern belts, as shown by the temple bell with inscription of Gye-mi 癸未 I223. Sprinkler are Goryeo's works of I2th-I3th centuries, which are divided into type Ⅰ with a spout and type Ⅱ without a spout. The Gwan-bul Songra 灌佛松羅, manufactured by buddha's servant, Kim-chun 金春 in I2I5, shows that the plate used for bathing the baby Buddha statue with perfume was called "Songra 松羅" at that time. The tripod candle sticks, whose saucers resemble lions, are Gwang-myang-dae 光明臺 that Seo Geung 徐兢 referred to as "It is a utensil which props a lamp and a candlelight. Underneath there are three feet. There is a pillar in the centre which is joined together by every joint like a bamboo shoot. There is (also) a tray on the top," in his book 「Goryeo Do Gyeong 高麗圖經」. Four of candle sticks, manufactured by "Hyean 惠安, Dongyangdoin 棟梁道人 of Jeong-gwang Temple 定光寺" in "March of the year of Sin-mi 辛未, seem to constitute a set, possibly used for Esoteric Buddhist rituals. The guardian Buddha statues are gold statues of Water-moon Avalokiteśvara sitting in the posture of ϓunwangjwa 輪王座 in the silver shrine protected by Vaiśravana 毘沙門天 from outward. Being so small as to be grasped within a hand, they not only express the aesthetic consciousness of Goryeo's people through icons, patterns and techniques of repoussé method(making wanted patterns appear by hammering metal plate from behind), but also the bamboos on the sides of shrine show how painting was in the Goryeo Dynasty era. Patterns show typical ones of the Goryeo era, as shown by main ones, e.g. lotus patterns, lotus arabesque patterns, twin phoenix patterns, dragon patterns, coin patterns, Sanskrit patterns, bamboo patterns and Buddhist saint statues, and subordinate ones, e.g. cloud patterns, dragon cintmani patterns, wave patterns and lotus petal patterns. Except for gold and silver ones, such Buddhist Ritual Instruments were mainly cast in bronze, or plated according to the art of mercury amalgam plating after chasing with various kinds of chisels. Above all, the ring-punched technique, more advanced than that in the Unified Silla era, shows an essence of 'fish-egg' patterns by making the fittings closely patterned with small circles on the surface with the bell chisel to make main patterns distinguished. This is attributed to the facts that Goryeo kept in official contact in the Ⅱth century with the Liao 遼 Kingdom which succeeded to and developed the ring-punched technique of those days and that Goryeo employed excellent artisans naturalized from Kitan 契丹 as official ones. Like this, the Woohak Cultural Foundation's collections, through which Goryeo's Buddhist followers and artisans expressed their belief and aesthetic consciousness, have great significance in Korean history of craft, since they show not merely all of various kinds, patterns and techniques of Buddhist metal arts, but also the circumstances of foreign exchanges of Goryeo with North Song 北宋 and Liao 遼.

高麗時代 金屬 佛具 造成과 願主

서성호 용인대학교박물관 2006 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.10

금속공예기법에 따른 보존처리 방법

김수기 용인대학교박물관 2006 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.10

Traditional metal crafts have various materials and uses. Even though the same in material and use, they are, however, mutually different in the degree of corrosion or damage, depending on the methods or techniques of manufacturing. Accordingly, different methods of preservative treatment should be also adopted in accordance with metal working techniques. Not greatly deviating from those of metal remains in general, various methods of preservative treatment by metal working techniques are to be summarized as follows. It is desirable not to elute corrosion factors from the cast iron relics where intergranular corrosion has occurred, but to temper them with synthetic resins and infiltrate the glue into them as quickly as possible. Besides, it is desirable to infiltrate the glue into the crevices of metal joint as in intergranular corrosion after tempering them with synthetic resins, or to fill them with restoration agent. The relics decorated with inlays or precious metals should be treated for treatment with all stabilizing chemicals or strengthening agents selected, depending on the basis metal whose ionization is active. At the parts decorated with inlays or precious metals, it is desirable to confirm, with X-ray films, parts which have got loose and to remove rust from them carefully using a microscope lest the traces of grinding, made for polishing at the time of manufacturing, should be eliminated. At the gilt bronze relics, rust is chemically removed. At the same time, physical methods should be also appropriately used according to the state of relics since much damage may occur according to the state of plated gold. Exposed to extinction for various reasons, all cultural properties including metal relics should be safely preserved and displayed in the environment suitable for its material and state. They are all valuable cultural inheritances regardless of kind and grade and should be handed over intact to descendents.

繪畵.典籍문화재 보존의 역사와 현황

박지선 용인대학교 박물관 2007 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.11

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朝鮮時代 白瓷 工房의 種類와 性格 : Types and Characteristics

장남원 용인대학교 박물관 2004 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.8

A systematic exploration of the structures, scales, and working processes of the white porcelain works may give answers to the questions on various changes in making of the white porcelain. The works, where most of the processes are done from the refining of original materials to the glaze on the product, could be an important index to show the quality producing techniques of the white porcelain. It can be safely said that the works sites and products in the kiln sites tell us the general characteristics of the White Porcelain in Joseon(朝鮮) Dynasty as follows: First of all, most works sites in kilns seemed to have the facilities to refine and mix clays, store clays and glaze, shape, decorate, and glaze the porcelains; there seemed to be 2 to 5 works sites to a kiln. It could be varied according to their types and products, but the kilns usually had site complex for storage and refinement, a small-sized firing site, and a hypocaust installation. Sometimes they had individual kilns but shared the workshops nonetheless. Secondly, workshops were located 10~30 meters from the kilns, generally in front of the kilns or at the sides of them. Workshops were at the lower level than the kilns, and they were built around the side exits of the kilns, with some geographical exceptions. Conclusively it could be implied that the location of the workshops was related to the working courses for stacking in kilns. Third, works were founded on the hardened earth and consisted of the earth, while the apparatus and temporary facilities used wood. Fourth, remodelling of the works of moving of the kilns seemed to have taken place during the leisurely times with no regular schedule, which was usually between July and August, or November and December on the lunar calendar. Fifth, there were relatively a large pile of refinement wastes around the works, and the refining process took much space in the works. Works were strategically located neat the valleys, which was to make the advantage of the water supply for the refining process. Especially the local kilns had a lot of refining facilities in works sites such as Seungju Hukok-ri, Suncheon Munkil-ri, Muan Piseo-ri, Jangseong Suok-ri, and Cheongyang Daebak-ri, where potters mined the local clay to refine and produce on site. Sixth, there were some differences in the works of the Kwangju(廣州) official kilns(官窯) and local kilns. We cannot generalize hastily with the established data, of course, but until now there has not been any pit or facility for refining process in Kwangju kilns. It is contrasted with many piles of refinement wastes and a lot of storage pits in local kilns for white porcelain. It might be partly related to the fact that official kilns had a supply of good quality clay all over the country to produce the best white porcelains. Namely, Kwaungju kilns had refined clay delivered; therefore the kilns did not have to install the refining process facilities.

複制中國書畵文物的歷史和現狀及複制工藝技術

曹靜樓,郭文林 용인대학교 박물관 2003 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.7

Imno(臨摹 copying) of the painting and writing in China is combined result of many closely-related elements that include Chinese cultural tradition and philosophy and substantial characteristics of Chinese paintings and calligraphy. ① Chinese rulers throughout history, under the so-called theory of 'Sungkyohuajoinlon' (成敎化助人論 to help people by educating them) often relied on paintings as a means to strengthen their governing foundation while using them to educate their subjects and people. For example, Hyojaeuisudo ≪孝子義士圖, a painting of devoted children and righteous people≫ meant the loyalty and obedience, Yulyujun ≪烈女傳, a story of virtuous women≫ was used to signify the importance of chastity in a feudal society. Paintings with such themes were met with the rulers ethics and, with the supports from the rulers, used as a means to publicize their ethics and educate their subjects and people. ② There were many rulers who were good at or loved the writing and painting in ancient China. Among many, Taizhong Li Shimin at Tang Dynasty(唐 太宗 李世民), Xianzhong Li Jiangji(玄宗 李降基), Huizhong Jo Ji at Song Dynasty (宋代 徽宗 趙佶), Xunzhong Zhu Jianshen at Ming Dynasty(明代 憲宗 朱見深), Gaozhong Hong Li at Qing Dynasty(靑代 高宗 弘力) are such examples. Development of painting and writing arts in China was achieved with the interests of rulers in them, and important eras that marked the history of Chinese painting and writing arts were created. Until the year of Huizhong(徽宗), the level of painting and writing was an important condition in deciding a governmental position. However, in ancient times, since there was a limited number of painting and writing works and lack of printing technology, emperors and high officials of literature had to be satisfied only with enjoying them and hoped to possess them. In the government, a special bureau was established to educate and raise the professionals who could duplicate the paintings and writings. This tendency influenced the society as a whole, and the atmosphere of reproduction of painting and writing works by duplication gradually culminated. ③ Chinese philosophy had also influenced their painting and writing arts. Chinese drawings pursue objectivity and has an expression style of Chuninhapil (天人合一, heaven and human beings are one). In Chinese drawings, artists describe the natural object and at the same time transfer their mind and feelings in them. Nature in the drawings is not just the nature as it is seen, but it is the nature observed and attained by artists and drawn from deep inside of artists. When people learn Chinese drawings for the first time, they are not taught how to describe the forms as in the western style but receive formative train in that people enter into the nature and sketch. This is the reason why artists, when copying the works in the past, are able to obtain the feelings of nature and learn various brush techniques that are applied in Chinese drawings. Therefore, copying is a significant method to learn Chinese drawings. For example, SunMyo(線描 line description) has a certain form, and a famous ShipPalMyo (十八描 18 descriptions) including ChulSunMyo(鐵線描), YuSaMyo (遊絲描), NanYupMyo (蘭葉描), YuYupMyo (柳葉描), JoEuiMyo (曹衣描) was created. Since these lines don't exist in natural objects, it is impossible to learn them through sketching. They can be learned only by copying the works in the past, in which they equates with various drawing styles that are applied when painting various objects. For example, JunBup(준法 technique to express the feel of the surface as it is) used for landscape drawings is helpful when expressing the touch and feelings of various rocks. For example, BuByukJun(斧劈준) or WooJumJun(雨點준) are good for expressing the characteristics of Chinese northern landscape, PiMaJun(披痲준) or MiJumJun(米點준) for Chinese southern landscape. This JunBup does not exist in natural objects such as mountain or rock, and artists can learn the right JunBup for various rocks through copying the works of the past. ④ Traditional thinking that stresses the relationship between a teacher and disciple in Chinese culture had also influenced Chinese painting and writing arts. When people beging to learn Chinese drawings, they must copy the works of their teacher. Therefore, when other people look at the drawings, they know who is with which teacher and which school. The drawings of certain artists are used as an educational purpose when students learn drawings for copying. For example, SaSaengJinBuDo ≪寫生珍禽圖≫ by Huang Jun (黃筌) in Song Dynasty was inherited to his son and learned as a work for copying. Each word in Immo(臨摹), according to the explanation in the ancient literature, has a separate meaning, Mo(摹 to copy) means Tap(榻 to copy), and Im(臨 to overlook) means Sa(寫 to write). Current meaning of Im(臨) is, while looking at the original drawing, to understand deeply and in details. When doing it, not only the techniques of brush, ink, and color but also the compositional characteristics should be thoroughly studied in order to completely familiarize with the form and line of the original drawing. And then, it has to be reproduced on another paper in one moment, and the copy does not have to be and can not be exactly the same as the original. Im(臨), based upon the complete understanding of the original, is to complete the copy with one energy without looking at the original. Mo(摹) is, while placing a thin paper right over the ancient drawing book, to copy both thick and thin lines, and Mo(摹)'s meaning in copying of a painting (摹畵) is the same. In ancient times, Mo(摹) was replaced with Mo(模 to imitate) or Mu(撫 to stroke). In other words, a transparent paper is placed over the original, the first copy is accurately made, the original is removed, drawing paper is placed over the first copy, and drawing is done in details while referring the original. Two words, Im(臨) and Mo(摹), originally impose a separate meaning and cant be one word, but they are habitually used as one word. Mo(摹) used in current China cant be Im (臨) but has to be called as Motap (摹榻). Especially, copying and counterfeiting are fundamentally different and can't be used as same meaning. The purpose of copying is a complete reproduction of energy and form of the original, and it is to conserve and actively publicize the original. The purpose of counterfeiting is to gain profits while falsely stating someone else's name as his or her own, and it includes the meaning of damaging the original. They also have difference in using the technique. The work of copying is faithful to the original and completely reproduce the smallest detail. People producing the copies must perfectly understand the spirit and form of the original, and successful copies should contain both the form and spirit. Rather, counterfeit is not based on the original but freely drawn upon studying a certain brush style of ones own. As a result, artists of counterfeit who are very well aware of the brush style used by the original artist are famous artists and might be the person who lives the same period with or the disciple of the original artist. Paintings produced for the purpose of counterfeiting possibly be the fraud and trouble to judge the authenticity of the work in a later period. Copying project of painting and writing at the Palace Museum is to replace the original work with the copied one by the time of difficulty in exhibiting the original, which is the best way to conserve the original. Copying of ancient paintings and calligraphy does not only mean the line description, outlining, coloring), or usage of ink. It is a very difficult process of re-creation that requires sincerity and efforts. Since the Palace Museum has started the copying project in 1950s, top artists are putting their efforts to copy and duplicate highly-valuable cultural artifacts. They have copied famous drawings of Qin, Tang, Song and Yuan dynasty with strict working attitude and exquisite techniques. Famous Chungmyungsanghudo≪淸明上河圖≫, Hanheejaeyayeondo ≪韓熙載夜宴圖≫, Guasukpyungwondo≪과石平遠圖≫ by Kwak Hee(郭熙), and Chunggeumdo ≪聽琴圖≫ by Jo Gil (趙佶) are such examples. Not many professionals are working for the copies in China. There were few in the Shanghai(上海) and Nanjing(南京) Museum during 1980s, but they are no longer there with various reasons. In Dunhuang(敦煌) and Xian (西安), frescoes are mainly being replicated. The quality of professionals who work to copy at the Palace Museum are the best in its technique and size and cannot be compared to other museums. Copying one painting successfully requires a lot of preparations. When producing the copies, it takes from few days to several years. Thus, safety of the original should be guaranteed, and there should not be done even a small damage. But observing the original should be convenient, and copying process should be progressed with many attentions.

한국도자에 있어서 생산과 소비

윤용이 용인대학교 박물관 2004 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.8

高麗時代 寺址 出土 磁器의 器種과 性格 : 생산과 소비의 관점에서 Variety and the Characteristics

이종민 용인대학교 박물관 2004 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.8

Since 1990s, the major achievement in Korean Archaelogical studies includes the excavations of temple sites, where a lot of ceramics has been dug up as their major specimens. The excavations from temple sites reflect the consumptive trend of the monks, the largest consumer group in the times when Buddhism was the dominant religion. Goryeo monks consisted of the social elites and cultural leaders in the hierachical society, so we can say their consumptive trend had a lot of influence on making of the celadon porcelain. It can be summarized briefly according to the data from excavations: porcelain excavations from temple sites can be categorised in celadon, white porcelain, and imported porcelain; historic temples seemed to have consumed common items from the early Goryeo to later times. Among these items, Korean celadons were found in the form of bowl and tea vessels even in the earliest stage. In the Middle Goryeo Dynasty, various everyday vessels appeared in place of bowl and tea vessels; and in later Goryeo celadon items were simplified, usually in the forms of food vessels. Celadons were circulated nationwide if they were in high quality, but if they were in low quality, they came from the kiln near the temples. Compared to this, white porcelain was found in the temples near the workshops, which signified the consumptive pattern different from the ones of the high quality celadon. The import porcelain such as Yaozhouyao-type(燿州窯系 celadon(靑磁), Dingyao-type(定窯系) white porcelain(白磁), Jingdezhenyao-type(景德鎭窯系) qingbaiporcelain(靑白磁, porcelain with bluish-white glaze), Jianyao-type(建窯系) tenmoku(天目, stoneware with black-glaze), Jizhouyao-type(吉州窯系) tenmoku(天目) were found as many as the high quality celadon in proportion and numbers, which was related to the conditions for domestic porcelain production. Especially the celadons with molded design and hard white porcelains in good quality, and black glazed tea bowls were the major imports, which could not be produced found in Goryeo dynasty (高麗) Porcelains from the temple sites consistently corresponded to the products from kilns in each age. This implies most of the kiln products were consumed in temples. As time passed by, the items changed in types, and this might be because the new forms of porcelain from China accelerated the change. Also it was partly due to the gradual change in social institutions. It is not certain how much the temples have contributed to the change, but it is for certain that since the active majority who accepted the new culture of ceramics gathered around the temples. thus playing an important role the change of the types in Goryeo celadon.

중국 서화유물 복제의 역사와 현황 및 복제 기법

曹靜樓,郭文林 용인대학교 박물관 2003 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.7

고려말·조선초 官司銘梅甁의 製作時期와 性格

김윤정 용인대학교 박물관 2004 丹豪文化硏究 Vol.- No.8

Many maebyeong (梅甁, plum blossom bottles) extant were produced in the late fourteenth century. The shapes and compositions of decorative designs of maebyeong from this period show some common features. The silhouette of a typical bottle became more voluminous with a swelling shoulder in the shape of an “S” compared to those produced in earlier times. The composition of designs on the body is basically made of three horizontal sections. However, some maebyeong bottles have been found that are decorated with designs in four sections, which are believed to have been produced in later years. The shoulder is decorated with a design of double lotus flowers that have been inlaid with contrasting white slip and red slip (which turns black when fired), and the bottom is decorated with a design of double lotus flowers inlaid with white slip only. A variety of designs including clouds and crane, lotus flowers, water and fish, and lotus scrolls were widely used for decoration. Lotus flower designs were most widely used. The name of the government office was inlaid with red slip with the use of a sharp tool. The inscription of ‘司膳’ on this maebyeong bottle was made with a thicker tool than those used on other bottles. In the early fourteenth century, the sexagenary cycle was inscribed on vessels to be given as tribute. In the late fourteenth century, the names of government offices were generally inscribed. All the government offices except for Seongsang-so(城上所) are assumed to have been operating since the early fourteenth century. They were all government offices concerned with the finances of the royal house. The Goryeo (高麗) government implemented a number of measures to maintain the financial condition of the royal house, which had been severely drained due to the struggles against the Mongol invasions. However, these measures failed to produce any substantial results. Upon acceding to the throne, King Chungseon(忠宣)reorganized the government offices in charge of financing the royal house. The king attempted to improve the financial situation of the royal house officially. Seongsang-so(城上所) is assumed to have been charged with responsibilities unlike those of offices that handled the finances of the royal house. Around 1376, Seongsang(城上) was under each sa(司, unit of government organization, equivalent to today’s ministry). After 1389, it is likely that low-ranking government officials of Saong(司甕), a government office responsible for the royal household, were responsible for inscribing vessels. Seongsang(城上) became more important after 1389, and the term ‘silverware Seongsang(銀器城上)’ was used to refer the place where silverware was stored. ‘Seongsang-so(城上所)’ is assumed to have referred a place to store vessels like porcelain, which were highly likely to be stolen in shipment as tribute and naturally prone to breakage. It is assumed that the role of Seongsang became less important after around 1417, when each sa (司) began to supervise vessel production and inscription of government office names began. Given that Gyeongguk Daejeon (經國大典, National Code) recorded the role of the ‘silverware Seongsang,’ it is assumed that Seongsang was in existence until the late fifteenth century.