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식민 통치하 자이나교도 여성의 사원 건축 후원 ― 인도 서부 구자라트를 중심으로
구하원 ( Ku Hawon ) 서울대학교 인문학연구원 2021 人文論叢 Vol.78 No.2
본고는 19세기 중반에 활동한 자이나교도 여성 두 명의 사원 건축 후원과 그 건축양식을 분석하여 이들이 가부장제와 식민 통치라는 이중적인 억압에 대응한 방식을 고찰하고자 한다. 구자라트에서 가장 큰 도시 아메다바드 출신의 우잠바이는 1840년경 구자라트 남서부에 위치한 자이나교의 성지 샤뜨룬자야에 난디슈와라드위빠 사원을 지었으며, 구자라트 남부 출신의 하르꾼바르바이는 1848년 아메다바드에 그 남편의 이름으로 알려진 하티싱 사원을 지었다. 성지에 거대한 사원들을 지음으로써 세속적인 신용과 사업 관계를 과시하였던 남성 후원자들과 달리, 우잠바이는 띠르탕까라들이 해탈에 대해 설법하는 이상향인 난디슈와라드위빠를 형상화함으로써 남성들과 차별화된 자신의 신실함을 보여주고자 하였다. 동시에 ‘인간이 접근할 수 없는’ 난디슈와라드위빠를 재현하고 그 곳에서 스스로 경배함으로써 경계를 넘어서고자 하는 의지를 보였으며, 이는 여성으로서 가부장제 사회에 의해 주어진 한계들에 상징적으로 저항하는 행위였다. 이에 반하여 하르꾼바르바이는 남편의 유언에 따라 하티싱 사원을 완공하면서 남성 후원자들이 전통적으로 따랐던 복고주의적 자이나교 건축양식을 받아들였고, 이를 통해 남편이 세상을 떠난 후 그 역할을 이어받은 가장으로서 자신의 지위를 부각하였던 것으로 보인다. 이후 그녀는 사원 건축과 같은 종교적인 후원 대신 교육기관이나 병원 설립 등의 공적 후원으로 옮겨감으로써 19세기 구자라트의 엘리트 남성들이 새로운 환경에서 스스로의 사회적 지위를 표출하던 방식 역시 차용하였다. 두 여성 후원자의 건축과 후원에 나타나는 어긋남(discrepancy)을 통해 이들이 어떤 방식으로 당시 빠르게 변화하는 식민 사회에 개입하면서 전통적인 가부장제에 “대치하지 않으며 저항하고 이와 경합하는 태도”를 볼 수 있다. This paper examines two Jain women and their patronage of temples during the 19th century, and how such patronage embodied a “non-confrontational resistance and contestatory behavior”. Ujambai, a wealthy Jain woman from Ahmedabad, built the Nandīśvaradvīpa Temple at Śatruñjaya (1840), one of the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Śvetāmbara Mūrtipujak Jains, and Harkunvarbai built the Hathi Singh Temple in Ahmedabad (1848), after the death of her husband. I suggest that in comparison to Ujambai’s temple, which aimed to differentiate her faith from the worldly approach of the Jain merchants while simultaneously challenging the symbolic limits set by traditional patriarchy, Harkunvarbai’s temple appropriated the temple architecture of male patrons to proclaim her status as householder. In addition, I argue that Harkunvarbai’s shift from religious patronage to civic duties also displayed the facility with which she replicated the patterns of contemporary male patronage.
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식민치하 인도 종교대학의 의의와 한계 -알리가르 무슬림 대학교와 바나라스 힌두 대학교를 중심으로
구하원 ( Hawon Ku ) 서울대학교 인문학연구원 2016 人文論叢 Vol.73 No.1
Institutions of western higher education in India, including colleges and universities, have provided the South Asian subcontinent with major figures in Indian political and social history, as well as a large class of educated persons who have acted as the main force of modernization. However, since 1857 British rule endeavored to control Indian education through the establishment of colonial universities and the affiliation system, which remains a problematic issue even in present day India. Following such changes and challenges, two universities were established by Indians with religious education as a substantial part of their identity. Banaras Hindu University and Aligarh Muslim University share several similarities, such as their dates and processes of establishment, as well as their common goals in the education of a modern as well as religious citizen. In this paper I compare the methods in which the two universities brought together a religious identity and the idea of modern education, as well as the driving ideas and manners in which the universities were established. During a period in which colonial rule had fully assumed power over the institutions of producing and distributing modern knowledge, the two universities suggested a modernity differentiated with the West through a process of negotiation, adaptation, acknowledgement and resistance. However, this struggle to produce a modern “Indian” citizen with a religious identity was stymied due to several reasons, including the role of religion as well as language in their curriculum and education.
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『아크바르나마( Akbarnama)』의 세밀화를 통해 본 아크바르의 군주상(君主像)
구하원(Ku Hawon) 부산경남사학회 2006 역사와 경계 Vol.61 No.-
Within this paper I argue that the paintings of two different manuscripts of the Akbarnama (The History of Akbar) reflect the formation and changes in the Mughal emperor Akbar's notion of kingship and authority during his reign. Although much research has been done on the manuscript paintings of this period, no comparison has been done on the subject matters of these manuscripts, nor have the changes been related to Akbar's notion of kingship. The earlier manuscript, currently in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, was produced during the mid-1580s, a period when Akbar was actively involved in forming an imperial authority as well as the production of history and art. The later manuscript, divided between the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, and the British Library, London, was produced in 1604, only a year before his death. The subject matters of the Victoria and Albert Museum manuscript display a legitimization of Akbar's rule based on his role as a conqueror as well as a divinely illumined being. Also, Akbar is depicted as a spiritually superior being within paintings that depict him in a religious surrounding. However, the Chester Beatty Library/British Library manuscript has only one painting with a religious subject matter, even though it displays a much wider variety of subject matters than the earlier manuscript. Due to the changes in the depiction of Akbar within these paintings, I argue that the paintings of the earlier manuscript were specifically produced to express a powerful notion of kingship based on Akbar's understanding and utilization of religious authority.
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