Communism and Capitalism, and Conservatism and Consumerism:

Jae shik Shin 성공회대학교 신학연구소 2017 Madang: Journal of Contextual Theology Vol.28 No.-

The aim of his paper is to describe some characteristics of Korean Protestantism in relation to the external context of Korean Protestantism, providing a general survey of the religious landscapes in Korea. Communism, Capitalism, Conservatism, and Consumerism will be selected to depict the characteristics of Korean Protestantism. The two terms, Communism and Capitalism, represent the external factors which have paved the way to the rapid growth of Korean Protestantism. Other two words, Conservatism and Consumerism are other pairs of internal factors, which connote the features of Korean Protestantism. With external and internal factors in Korean Protestantism, a term, megachurches, is another factor for understanding Korean Protestantism. Two types of megachurches have emerged through two stages after Liberation period in Korea. Each type of megachurch has a closely related to each pair of external and internal factors, respectively . The first type of megachurch was established by the refugees from North Korea between 1945 and 1950. Anti-communism is closely related with conservatism. Both are a twin rooted in same historical soil. The second type of megachurch had emerged during the process of economic development from 1960s to 1990s. Those emerging megachurches in the second stage have their membership with new migrators from rural areas. Those megachurches, located with the newly planned resident areas, became a bearer and a subject of capitalism and consumerism. Embodying the business-oriented structure and operation, those megachurches have proclaimed the material success and consuming the blessing, so called, the gospel of prosperity .

한국개신교의 현재와 미래

신재식(Jaeshik Shin) 한국종교학회 2012 宗敎硏究 Vol.68 No.-

The year 2012 is very meaningful for Korean Protestantism, for the year is one hundred anniversary of Korean Presbyterian Church, which as the biggest denomination of Korean Protestantism, possesses about 75% of Korean Protestant. This essay aims to examine the present situation of Korean Protestantism with its general features and to prospects its future. To achieve the goal, this essay is consists of three parts: an introduction, two main sections, and a conclusion. Following the introduction, the second section presents the general situation of Korean Protestantism with its aspects of growth, stagnation, and declination. To describes its current stagnation and declination, its membership, financial affair, and reputation. After 1985 them membership of Korean Protestants has been continuously declined, and especially during the last 10 years the young generation has left church four more times than elder generation. Regarding the financial aspect, the budget of Korean Protestant churches has decreased with the reduction of the number of economic activities within churches. Korean Church also falls into a crisis of its reputation due to its exclusive attitude toward non-Protestants and an aggressive policy of mission and evangelism. In sum, the Korean Protestantism has passed its climax and faced a sever crisis which never has been faced in the past. Considering the rapid growth of Korean Catholic Church, what is the reason of the declination of Korean Protestantism? It has lost the confidence of Korean society. The section III deals with the characteristics of Korean Protestantism in the relation of an organization and a religious discourse. The former is described with two key terms, church building Christianity and individual church system. In Korea, Christianity is identified with a church build, which leads an indifference of a social issues occur in outside of church. It is strengthened with an individual church system, which is responsible for its own budget, planning, and administration. Because of its individual church system, each church focuses its whole capability to get a more church member which will result in an individual church growth. Korean church within a survival game, strives for being a mega church. In this situation, the ministers are seized by the discourse of success and growth, imported from the USA. As long as, however, Korean Church has been occupied with the strong tendency of conservative theology and prosperity theology, the future of Korean Protestantism is not so optimistic.

A STUDY OF THE FUNDAMENTALIST TENDENCY IN KOREAN PROTESTANTISM : WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE KOREAN PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH

JAE-BUHM HWANG 계명대학교 한국학연구원 2008 Acta Koreana Vol.11 No.3

In this article we examine Korean Protestantism’s intrinsic fundamentalist bent, which has caused both numerous schisms within the Korean Protestant churches and exclusivist approaches toward other religions. First, we study how Korean fundament-alism has occurred in three characteristic theological controversies, and three tragic schisms in the Korean Presbyterian Church. It appears that Korean fundamentalism, as it has appeared in the history of Korean Presbyterian churches, is unique in that it has an intense Biblicism. Then, we scrutinize how Korean fundamentalism has taken on an intense Biblicism. The theology of the American Presbyterian missionaries in Korea, which determined the theological orientation of Korean Protestantism, was “notably conservative.” But unfortunately this conservatism was further strengthened by Korea’s lack of political freedom. Being unable to participate in socio-political matters, the missionaries and their Korean followers could not help but focus on Bible studies, prayer, and evangelism. Furthermore, Korean Presbyterians’ Biblicism was also heightened by revivalism and millennialism, which were especially rampant before and after the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910. So it was Korea’s revolutionary socio-political situation, which greatly facilitated revivalism, millennialism, and eventually fundamentalism in Korea. Thus, we find three different factors that have contributed to the development of Korean Protestantism’s Biblicist and fundamentalist leanings: 1) the Western missionaries’ strong conservatism, which emphasized the Bible, significantly due to Korea’s political instability, 2) revivalism, and millennialism, which were again stimulated by Korea’s revolutionary situation, and 3) Korea’s original religious teaching on millennialism. And it was Dr. Pak Hyŏng-yong, who was the most important Korean theologian in establishing Korean Protestant Christianity as a Biblical Christianity. Having gained an insight into the Biblicist nature of Korean Protestant Christianity, Dr. Pak seems to have succeeded in combining it with the pietistic and Protestant orthodox (old Princeton) theology of the American Presbyterian missionaries to Korea, eventually making a unique Korean theology that emphasized the authority of the Bible. His theology, however, has a fundamentalist bent in that it rejects other ways of interpreting the Bible.

A Historical Development of the Relationship between the South and the North Korean Protestant Churches : from 1945 to the beginning of 21^(st) century

Ahn, In-Sub Presbyterian General Assembly Theological Seminary 2007 CHONGSHIN THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL Vol.13 No.1

Korea still remains the only partitioned country in the world as a result of the ideological conflict since the occupation by the United States and the Russian Soviet Union, although in 1945 this country was liberated from Japanese colonialism during 1910-1945. The partition of Korea signifies the relic of the 20th century's world history. This division caused the hatred and inhumane conditions between the South and North Koreans. These circumstances help us to understand the characters of the North and South Korean Churches. In addition, whenever the tension in the Korean peninsular grew, the world peace, none the less the tranquility of Asia and Pacific Ocean was menaced. Therefore, the theological and practical efforts for the reconciliation of Korea, pursued by the South and North Korean Churches, could not be only a task of one national church but also must be an issue of the churches worldwide. This article sketches the historical progress of the relationship between the South and the North Korean Protestant Churches from the liberation of 1945 to the beginning of 2000. The main focus is drawn to two points. Firstly, we treat the development of the viewpoints of the South and North Protestant Churches towards each other. Secondly, this article argues on the relationship between the historical situation of the Korean peninsular and the characters of the Korean protestant churches in the South and the North. Especially, it is important to note that, around the middle of the nineteen nineties, a new trend in the relation of the South and the North Korean Churches towards North Korea was set. It appeared in the procedure for the material aid of the South Korean protestant Churches to the North Korean economic suffering. The practical joint supporting mission between the "conservative" and the "progressive" protestant Churches of the South is building a converging bridge among the opposed circles. As a result, the colonialist period, the partition of Korea, and the process for the reunification of South and North Korea lead us to recognize three characteristic protestant Churches of Korea from 1945 till today. They are the "conservative" and the "progressive" Protestant Churches of South Korea and the "Socialistic Church under the State" of North Korea. Through the cooperation of these Churches and the peaceful and mutual understanding process of the South and the North societies, Korean Protestantism is called to fulfill its tasks for the reunification of Korea, which is rapidly activated in recent days. The Protestantism of Korea should serve God's Kingdom and World Peace with the Churches worldside with open attitudes, by keeping the biblical and the reformed priciples. The 21'1 century will be eager to see the efforts of the Korean Protestant Churches for peace and reconciliation on the Korean peninsula. It could be evaluated as a "reforming succession" of the Protestant inheritance.( * )

초기 개신교선교사들의 한국샤머니즘 이해 -선교인류학의 관점에서-

조흥윤 ( Cho Hung Yun ) 연세대학교 국학연구원 2004 동방학지 Vol.125 No.-

68혁명과 한국개신교

안교성 ( Kyo-seong Ahn ) 한국서양사연구회(구 서울대학교 서양사연구회) 2018 서양사연구 Vol.0 No.58

Is 68 Revolution (or May 1968 events in France) significant to the Korean society? To answer this question, this article aims to investigate the relationship between the 68 Revolution and the Korean society, centering on Korean Protestantism. In doing so, this study is to focus on three periods in which the Korean Protestant church shows interest in the historical movement in 1968: 1968, the year of the 68 Revolution; 1987, that of the June Democracy Movement (or June Struggle); and 2008, that of the Candle Revolution, and beyond. Although the 68 Revolution is one of the landmark events in world history, it cannot be said that it was properly appreciated or appropriated in the Korean society, particularly the Korean church, mainly due to different historical contexts. Furthermore, it turns out that this underestimated political upheaval has not been well studied in Korea. The 68 Revolution is a notoriously complicated phenomenon, which seems to defy explanation: it was both constructive and destructive; and it was the movement of counterculture and alternative culture. The Korean Protestant church came under the influence of the 68 Revolution, through the Uppsala General Assembly of the World Council of Churches held in 1968, and the renowned theologian, Jurgen Moltmann, a kind of guru of Korean political theologians, who selectively adopted the message of the 68 Revolution. In 1987, the prolongation of the authoritative government compelled the Koreans to continue to concentrate on political issues rather than cultural ones, and it was against this historical backdrop that emerged the Korean civic groups with the leaders most of whom outgrew their loyalty to Korean Protestantism. Nowadays, the Korean Protestant church faces almost the same questions as those which the ‘May 1968’ raised but not fully answered: civil rights movements, the voice of the under-represented, cultural strife, generation conflict, etc. Different from the European countries which have struggled with generational and ideological issues over the last several decades since the 68 Revolution, the Koreans including Korean Protestants are forced to sort out problems, social and religious, with limited time, for the retarded political change in Korea led to the lagging of cultural transformation. (Presbyterian University and Theological Seminary / ksa@puts. ac.kr)

근대시기 전통사상과 서구사상의 "만남" 개신교와 타종교의 관계를 중심으로-

한규무 ( Kyu Moo Han ) 한국사상사학회 2015 韓國思想史學 Vol.0 No.50

이 논문은 “근대시기 서구사상과 전통사상의 ‘만남’”에 대해 개신교와 타종교의 관계를 중심으로 살펴본 것이다. 논의된 내용을 정리하면 다음과 같다.첫째, ‘서구사상’과 ‘기독교사상’을 구별해야 한다. 서양인 선교사들은 기독교와 함께 서구사상도 함께 소개 보급했다. 하지만 대부분 한국인들은 이 모두를 기독교사상으로 이해했다. 그러다 보니 기독교사상이 끼친 영향이 실제보다 과대평가되었다.둘째, 개신교의 성장은 종교사상 자체보다 사회경제적 요인에 더욱 큰 영향을 받았다. 청일전쟁이나 러일전쟁 직후 교세가 급증한 것이 그 반증이다. 개신교가 서구열강의 종교라는, ‘개신교=문명종교’란 인식도 요인의 하나였다.셋째, 보수유생층의 입장을 대변하는 척사파에게는 개신교와 천주교의 구별이 중요하지 않았으며 모두 배척의 대상이었다. 온건개화파의 입장도 척사파와 비슷했으나 급진개화파는 개신교 수용에 적극적이었다. 하지만 급진개화파는 ‘개신교국가’의 문명 문화에 주목했을 뿐이지 그 종교사상에는 관심이 없었다.넷째, 선교사 중에는 불교 유교에 대해 한국의 종교문화로서 관심을 갖고 우호적 입장을 보인 이들도 여럿이었다. 하지만 그들은 개신교의 절대적 우월성을 강조했고, 한국의 개신교인들은 이를 그대로 수용했다. 유일신신앙은 모든 타종교를 배척의 대상으로 만들었다.다섯째, 개신교와 동학의 관계는 ‘갈등’으로 시작되었으나 ‘충돌’이라불릴 만한 사건은 없었다. 우호적이라 하기는 어렵지만 적대적이지도 않았다. 동학교도 출신으로 개신교인이 된 사례도 여럿이다. 이는 당시 민중들이 종교를 선택할 때 종교사상에 크게 구애되지 않았음을 짐작케 한다.이같은 현상이 나타나게 된 근본적인 이유는 내한한 초기 선교사에게서 찾아야 한다. 그들이 한국인에게 전파한 개신교의 교리도 유일 신신앙이었으며, 이는 타종교와의 대화나 소통을 근본적으로 차단하는 것이었다. 이 시기 개신교와 타종교의 진정한 ‘만남’을 찾기 어려운 이유도 바로 여기에 있다. This is study was investigated on "The contact of the Korean traditional thought and the western thought in the modern age of Korea" by focusing on the relation between Protestantism and other religions. The follows are the summary of the study: First, the western thought should be distinguished from the Christian thought. The western missionaries introduced and propagated the western thought as well as the Christian thought to Korean people. However, almost all of Korean people accepted the western thought as the same one as Christian thought. While Korean persons accepted like this, the influence of Christian thought was overestimated differently from the actual circumstances in Korea. Second, the Protestantism had been grown thanks to social and economic factor instead of religious thought factor. This insistence was proved by the fact that the total number of christians dramatically increased right after the Sino-Japanese war and the Russo-Japanese war. The total number of christians in Korea could also increased because Koreans understood like that the Protestantism was the Western``s religion and it was a civilized religion. Third, in the Choeksapa (anti-enlightenment traditionalists party) to speak for the conservative force, they didn``t regard the distinction between the Protestantism between the Catholic importantly, and both of them were the target of expulsion. The Ongeon gaehwapa (moderate enlightenment party) also indicated their opinions similarly with the Choeksapa``s ones, but the Geupjin gaehwapa (radical enlightenment party) showed an active attitude toward the acceptance of the Protestantism. However, the Geupjin gaehwapa paid attention to the only civilization and culture of ``nations accepting the Protestantism``, and they didn``t have no interest in their religious thought. Fourth, there were many missionaries who showed a friendly attitude toward Buddhism and Confucianism as the religious culture of Korea. However, they emphasized the absolute superiority of the Protestantism and Christians in Korea accepted the opinion of the missionaries without any rejection. Monotheism made all of other religions the target of expulsion. Finally, regarding the relation between the Protestantism and Donghak (peasant revolution), it started from ``conflict`` but there was no case called as ``clash``. It``s hard to say that Donghak activists showed a friendly toward the Protestantism, but they did not seem so hostile to it. A lot of cases that Donghak activist became a Christian were found. Because of this reason, the fact that the public of the time selected his/her religion regardless of doctrine was assumed. The fundamental cause of the above status should be found from missionaries who came to Korea in the beginning. They spreaded Korean people the doctrine of the Protestantism as monotheism, and their such a propagation caused the fundamental blocking of the communication and interchange between other religious people. This is the reason why the contact of the Protestantism and other religions at the time was not found.

한국학휘보 『Korean Repository』의 한국어와 한국어 학습 관련 기사 연구

석주연 사단법인 한국언어학회 2019 언어학 Vol.0 No.83

Korean Repository is an English magazine that had been published for six years at the end of 19th century in Korea. Although it was issued for a short period of time, it contained a vivid record and research on Korea's politics, economy, language and culture foreigners witnessed at the time. Most authors of the magazine were western protestant missionaries, including some western diplomats. Throughout the magazine, we can find research outcomes on the issues of Korean language and Korean language education such as the origin of Korean language and Korean Alphabet, translation style in Korean, Korean proverbs, the grammar structures of Korean, how to use of Korean words sentences and etc. Foreign contributors put huge efforts to develop the romanization system of Korean sounds and proper transcription method from English to Korean. Some of western protestant missionaries suggested that Koreans should introduce space and comma in their Korean texts. Although their initial motivation for these used was religious, they seemed to recognize its beneficial effects to Koreans. Some authors wrote the articles on how to overcome the difficulties of learning Korean, setting up their own Korean grammar rules through their exhaustive examination and comparison. There were a few hundreds of copies for each issue in Korean Repository at the time. Its readers included western people and a few Koreans based in Korea as well as people in China and Japan. Considering this, the magazines seemed to play a role as a medium to discuss Korean language and culture among East Asian countries at the end of 19th century.

Korean Protestantism in the Age of “Surplus of Positivity:” A Socio-cultural Analysis of Church Defaults in South Korea

( Choe Yong Un ) 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2017 Seoul journal of Korean studies Vol.30 No.2

In this paper the author not only analyzes the considerable number of Korean Protestant churches that are in default, but also attempts to apply the theoretical framework of Han Byung-Chul’s cultural criticism to the status quo situation of Korean Protestantism. Regarding the extent of the church defaults, one notices diverse factors impacting the situation, including a growth-oriented attitude among many senior pastors as well as other church leaders, moral hazards related to financial deals and the socio-cultural components of Korean Protestantism (such as excessive competition between denominations), a preference for bigger churches, the culture of ch’emyŏn (face), and church privatization. According to Han, the twenty-first century is an era of neurosis, wherein surplus positivity prompts a series of tendencies such as self-exploitation and depression. The Korean people have been over-worked and over-stressed, and both these factors have contributed to the nation’s suicide rate, which since 2003 has been the highest among the OECD member nations. The phenomenon of the “healing craze” (K. hilling yŏlp’ung) emerged under such conditions in Korea. Despite these factors, in many cases, emphasis is still placed on a growth-oriented strategy in Korean Protestantism, resulting in a burnout syndrome within congregations, which leads many believers to stop attending church (the so-called Kanaan sŏngdo, or Canaan congregation). Meanwhile, the “Small Church Movement” has recently been initiated by some Korean Christian leaders. This phenomenon can be interpreted as an attempt to re-consider the importance and role of small churches, and to emphasize spiritual maturity over numerical growth.

A STUDY OF THE FUNDAMENTALIST TENDENCY IN KOREAN PROTESTANTISM: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE KOREAN PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH

황재범 계명대학교 한국학연구원 2008 Acta Koreana Vol.11 No.3

In this article we examine Korean Protestantism’s intrinsic fundamentalist bent, which has caused both numerous schisms within the Korean Protestant churches and exclusivist approaches toward other religions. First, we study how Korean fundament-alism has occurred in three characteristic theological controversies, and three tragic schisms in the Korean Presbyterian Church. It appears that Korean fundamentalism, as it has appeared in the history of Korean Presbyterian churches, is unique in that it has an intense Biblicism. Then, we scrutinize how Korean fundamentalism has taken on an intense Biblicism. The theology of the American Presbyterian missionaries in Korea, which determined the theological orientation of Korean Protestantism, was “notably conservative.” But unfortunately this conservatism was further strengthened by Korea’s lack of political freedom. Being unable to participate in socio-political matters, the missionaries and their Korean followers could not help but focus on Bible studies, prayer, and evangelism. Furthermore, Korean Presbyterians’ Biblicism was also heightened by revivalism and millennialism, which were especially rampant before and after the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910. So it was Korea’s revolutionary socio-political situation, which greatly facilitated revivalism, millennialism, and eventually fundamentalism in Korea. Thus, we find three different factors that have contributed to the development of Korean Protestantism’s Biblicist and fundamentalist leanings: 1) the Western missionaries’ strong conservatism, which emphasized the Bible, significantly due to Korea’s political instability, 2) revivalism, and millennialism, which were again stimulated by Korea’s revolutionary situation, and 3) Korea’s original religious teaching on millennialism. And it was Dr. Pak Hyŏng-yong, who was the most important Korean theologian in establishing Korean Protestant Christianity as a Biblical Christianity. Having gained an insight into the Biblicist nature of Korean Protestant Christianity, Dr. Pak seems to have succeeded in combining it with the pietistic and Protestant orthodox (old Princeton) theology of the American Presbyterian missionaries to Korea, eventually making a unique Korean theology that emphasized the authority of the Bible. His theology, however, has a fundamentalist bent in that it rejects other ways of interpreting the Bible.