티벳불교권의 형성과 淸朝 藩部支配體制

金成修 명청사학회 2004 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.22

釋析蒙古佛敎文獻『六字眞言頌-호主三寶』

李亮(Aang Li) 동국대학교 불교문화연구원 2010 佛敎學報 Vol.0 No.56

There is large number and a variety of Buddhist literature of Mongolia, including history, literature, art, philosophy, medicine and many other areas. It has condensed spirit and wisdom of Mongolian nationality, played a positive role which was beyond measure in social progressand cultural heritage for the Nation. The literature is not only this national precious historical and cultural treasure, butalsojewel of the Chinese nation and the other nations of the world. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, with the spread of Tibetan Buddhism in the Mongolian community and been increasing lyprosperous, the propagation into the Mongol society of ancient Tibetan culture for the development greatly facilitated the implementation of the documents while Tibetan Buddhism with its features had an significant effect on many areas for Mongolian nationality just as the market place of idea sand the realm of philosophy, etc. In the period of Ming and Qing dynasty, each kind of work of Mongolian was invested with color of Buddhism, as『Song of Six Truest Words(Om Mani Padme Hum)-Guardian Triratna』which is one of more representative Mongolian Buddhist documents. This combines the souls of Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhist culture in a masterly way with its simple language, the characteristics of a literary style in Mongols Culture and strong Buddhismcolor. Can like this say: It is more than a Buddhist text. Moreover, we can completely understand and study audit literature material pronounces Buddhist color of ancient Mongolian. Academically, specialists in Buddhism from China, Japan, Europe, USA and other countries had make detailed studies of this traditional Buddhist culture: For instance, a Chinese mister called DuoshI wrote a book named <Study of Tibetan Buddhism - Wisdom Burst Forth from Love>; Tokiwa Daijo from Japan wrote several important studies as <Chinese Buddhism - Monastic Theory>, there are lots of matters in his writings while not many researches focused on Buddhism in Mongolia. This paper expounds Mongolian Buddhist literature from the angle of traditional one to restore the state and the height of the Buddhism developed in historicalperiod. Hoping the article is a wonderful origin that everyone could close read various material of Mongolian with color of Buddhism at the aspect of ancient Mongolian Buddhism or traditional Tibetan to analytical study the Buddhism from the perspective that more desirable in the beauty of its history.

오세(五世) 달라이라마 북경행(北京行)의 배경과 17세기 내륙아시아 네트워크

김성수 ( Sung Soo Kim ) 명청사학회 2008 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.29

몽장(蒙藏)관계의 역사적 연속성과 하서(河西)

김성수 중국사학회 2012 中國史硏究 Vol.80 No.-

몽골-티베트 관계의 문을 연 “대칸” ― 諸王 쿠텐(Köten, 1208-1251)의 생애와 관련 기록 연구 ―

최소영 동양사학회 2023 東洋史學硏究 Vol.164 No.-

Some of the Mongol historical records compiled in the 17th century have puzzled scholars, as they refer to Küten, a son of Ögedei, as a Great Khan. Küten was a prince who remained so until his death. While stationed in the ancient land of Xixia, he sent an army to Central Tibet and summoned the head of the Sakyapa sect as a representative of Tibet. A famous Sakyapa lama, Sakya Pandita, came as a delegate. He improved Küten's health and even manifested that Küten was the reincarnation of a former Xixia Emperor. Küten would have been well aware that the nobility of Xixia revered Tibetan Buddhism and he also developed a deep belief in Tibetan Buddhism through Sakya Pandita. He also granted authority to the Sakyapa sect to govern Tibet while the specifics are not clear. After the Mongol imperial position transitioned from the Ögödeids to the Toluids, a son of Tolui, Khubilai, upon hearing of the reputation of Sakya Pandita, requested that he be sent to his presence. Küten's son brought his disciple and nephew Phagpa, citing the elderly age of the lama. Khubilai was initially disappointed by the arrival of the nephew but, upon hearing teachings on Buddhist doctrine from the young man, he also became his disciple. Now, the partnership with the Sakyapa sect has shifted from Küten to Khubilai. After many twists and turns, Khubilai rose to the position of the Great Khan and appointed Phagpa as the Imperial Preceptor, a system that continued until the end of the Empire. The records of the Sakyapa during the Mongol Empire era are not currently available, but we can see that records of them from the 15th century onwards refer to Küten as “rgyal po,” meaning “Emperor” or “Great Khan.” Küten was the first Mongol royal member who established the official relationship between the Mongols and Tibet, and by inviting the Sakyapa lama as a representative, he was recorded as “Great Khan Küten” by the Sakyapa sect, who elevated their own authority through this title. More than 200 years after fleeing north due to the Ming army's pursuit, the Mongols once again embraced Tibetan Buddhism and received their own history in reverse from Sakya lamas, recording it as it was. This process was the background that confused scholars.

불교적 禮儀를 통해 본 17세기 내륙아시아

김성수 명청사학회 2018 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.50

This paper focused on the Rituals for political ceremonies among the Inner Asian World mainly includes Mongol, Tibet, and the Qing during the 17th century. In most cultural regions, sociery members commonly have formed their own indigenous ritual system which may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religio-political community. The Mongol, Tibet and the Manchu of Qing dynasty all had had a typical nationality, even though they had shared the common tradition derived from the nomadic culture. But from the late 16th and the 17th centuries, they made political coalitions each other and simultaneously shared the religion, Tibetan Buddhism. The third, the 5th Dalai Lama and the 6th Panchen Lama individually visited A-mdo Mongols, some southern Mongolian cities accompanying temples and Beijing. Some changes in Ritual system arouse from their visitings to temples and cities in Inner Asia. Buddhist monk from the Geluk, the Yellow Hat sect had been sent to the every corner of the Inner Asia including the Manchu court as an resident officer from Lhasa, though after the demise of Dzongar Mongols some monks had been sent from Qing court. Especially the Qutughtu(Living Buddha) recognized officially from the Geluk presided over political ceremonies around the Inner Asia like as Council, Assembly and so on. Mongols had kept for a long time the Kuriltai ceremony as the most important political and military council of the ancient tradition. After conversion to the Tibetan Buddhism, Mongols accepted Rituals of the Fan-Feng(梵封), Qutughtu(Living Buddha) and seating arrangements based on the gdan yig. These Ritual system firmly connected to the Geluk sect of Lhasa managed by Dalai Lama. But Mongols accepted rituals managed by Tibetan monks for the rebuilt of Mongol Empire of Qinggis Khan, so Mongols selectively reconciled the Inner Asian Rituals correlated with Tibetan Buddhism for political purposes. 만주, 몽골, 티베트를 주축으로 하는 내륙아시아의 정치 질서는 크게 세 차례에 걸친 몽골의 복속 과정을 통해 점차 청조 중심의 질서로 재편되었다. 특히 준가르 몽골의 복속을 전후하여 내륙아시아의 정치 질서는 큰 변화를 맞이했는데 준가르 몽골이 청조에 복속되는 1758년의 사건에 앞서 이미 후흐노르(靑海湖) 일대에 근거했던 구시한의 후손들이 청조에 복속되었다. 구시한 후손들의 영향 아래 있던 티베트 또한 청조의 영향 아래 놓이게 되었으니 6세 달라이라마의 전세 문제는 그 중요한 고비가 된 사건이었다. 우리가 만주, 몽골, 티베트를 내륙아시아의 주요 구성원이라고 규정한 데는 이들이 한때 몽골의 영향 아래에 있었다는 공통점이 작용했다. 그런 이유에서 16세기 후반 본격화되는 티베트 불교의 몽골 전교는 불교적 예의를 내륙아시아 전역으로 확산시키는 데 중요한 계기가 되었다. 뒤이은 정치 질서의 변화에 따라 내륙아시아의 예의 제도는 청조를 중심으로 다시금 재편될 수 밖에 없었다. 이 글은 티베트 불교와 청조의 관계를 다룬 다양한 정치사 관련 연구 성과를 바탕으로 내륙아시아 불교 예의의 형성 과정을 살피고자 하는 목적에서 시작되었다. 불교적 예의가 내륙아시아에서 작동하는 사례를 소개함으로써 그 구조에 접근하고자 하였다. 특히 시기적으로 몽골 복속이 완성되기 이전 시기에 초점을 맞춤으로써 청조에 의한 예의 재편 이전의 모습을 조명하고자 하였다. 장래 필자는 이러한 불교적 예의가 정치사적으로 의미 있게 작동하는 예를 소개함으로써 17세기 내륙아시아의 불교적 예의가 청조 중심으로 재편되는 과정을 추적하고자 한다. 이 글은 본격적인 재편 과정 연구의 시론으로서 5세 달라이라마 시기 형성된 예의의 면면을 불교식 칭호 梵封, 활불(호톡토), 좌석 배치 문서 “덴익” 등 몇 가지 사안으로 나눠 살펴보았다. 이를 통해 “내륙아시아에 불교적 예의가 어떻게 권위를 갖고 운용되었는가?” 하는 점을 논해 보았다.

명조(明朝)와 번승(番僧)

金成修 명청사학회 2013 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.40

过去学术界把明朝定位如从蒙古夺回中原, 恢复中华。因此认为明朝重新建设了宋以来中断的以中原人为中心的世界秩序‘朝贡体制’。为了确立明朝在中原的国家体系, 洪武帝强调洗清元朝遗留的‘元习’或‘夷法’。虽然洪武帝从华夷观念完全否定蒙古统治中原期间的贡献, 尽力恢复儒家礼仪制度, 可是这不意味明朝完全否定在元代发展的海外贸易而拥护排外性政策, 相反洪武帝尤其永乐帝关注元朝留下的国际关系以及贸易网络。 为了保持过去十三~十四世纪世界秩序, 与周围国家尽快连接过去的政治、经济关系, 明朝派遣使臣到各地, 从容恢复过去蒙古时代的一切国际关系。明初蒙古的威胁还存在的情况下, 明朝需要尽快建立以明朝为中心的国际秩序, 从此试图完全断绝周围政治势力与北元之间的联系。因此可以说为了断绝北元与周围国家的联系以及为了满足在国内外恢复贸易关系的需求, 明朝积极恢复元朝以来建立的广域贸易体制, 这是形成朝贡体制的历史背景之一。 在如上的情况下重新开始了以中原为中心的国贸体制, 明代西藏方面即乌斯藏的政教势力也参与以明朝为中心的新的国际关系, 其中我们可以发现明朝继承元代以来对乌斯藏的各项政策, 虽然明朝没有如元朝实现统治西藏的目标, 可为了保持关系, 给乌斯藏番僧、世俗君主授予贸易权以及进京机会, 也就是朝贡。在如此的情况下在南京、五台山番僧哈立麻主持进行过大规模佛事, 有时在北京的佛寺容纳过数千番僧, 明代番僧的来往产生了藏传佛教对明朝的传播, 虽然这影响限于宫廷, 可在宗教以及艺术史方面产生了值得注意的一面。实际上如此明朝于乌斯藏的关系反映蒙古遗留的十三世纪世界体制。

Naxi족의 사후세계에 대한 고찰 -『神路圖』를 중심으로

丁一 동아시아고대학회 2005 동아시아고대학 Vol.12 No.-

Dongba Painting <Shen Lu Tu(Road to Heaven(神路圖)> is a kind of long scroll paintings used for funeral and "releasing the souls of the departed" rituals in the Dongba religion of the Naxi people. It describe a long journey on which the souls of the departed have to be tortured in every possible way in hell, before being reincarnated as a man again, and finally joining the world of gods and the 33 storeys of heaven. The kind of painting by academic circles from home and abroad. During the ritual, the Dongba flamen spread the painting <The Road to Heaven(神路圖)>and chant the words of the scripture entitled <Guiding the souls of the departed on the Road to Heaven> standing beside it in order to release the souls of the departed. This <Road to Heaven(近神之路)>[during the Qing dynasty] is kept at the Lijiang Dongba Cultural Museum(麗江東巴文化博物館). It is 14.35 meters long and 0.34 meters wide, painted on white cotton cloth treated with starch. More than 410 demons, deities, Dongba specialists and over 100 varied images of animals can be found in this painting, It show peoples a mysteriousworld of demons and deities, it could therefore be regarded as a great work of ancient religious culture. An another painting <Road to Heaven(神路圖)>[during the Qing dynasty] is also a kind of long scroll paintings used for funeral and is kept at Harvard University Yanjing Library. Through this study we could find the scroll painting of Lijiang Dongba Cultural Museum is more beautiful and have more ancient Dongba painting tradition than the painting scroll of Harvard University Yanjing Library. There are many myths. cosmos universal views, life culture and Donga culture of Naxi trive in the scroll painting <road to Heaven>. oviparity story,tree production story and mother production story is producted in the three universal culture. In Dongba painting <Road to Heaven> there are multi-origin tradition for example Tibetan Buddism. Bon Religion and Daoism. Various facts including Garuda and white elephant of <Road to Heaven> Dongba scroll painting show us it have many Bon religion tradition. In near future, the relationship of between Dongba religion and Bon religion will be searched with more detail and certainty.