주요 고농서를 통한 조선시대의 도작기술 전개과정 연구 1 : 문제 제기, 연구방법 및 범위 설정

李崇謙,具滋玉,李殷雄,李弘䄷 韓國作物學會 1991 Korean journal of crop science Vol.36 No.2

도작은 동아 습윤지 농작물의 가장 대표적인 것으로서 고금을 통하여 국가의 재정과 식량원을 조달하는 주역의 위치를 차지해 왔었다. 또한 이러한 위상은, 물론 동남아 제국을 포함하여, 중국대륙과 한반도 및 일반열도로 이어지는 지역을 중심으로 기술교류와 이해관계를 맺어오면서 형성되어 왔음에 틀림이 없다. 특히 우리나라는 지리적 위치로 인하여 더욱 두드러진 교양적 역할을 담당할 수밖에 없었고, 더우기 문화적 교체는 물론 외침과 내환을 수없이 겪는 동안 농업조건은 개간과 황폐 및 회복을 거듭하였고, 이 위에서 도작과 도작기술의 수용발전은 칠전팔기하여 왔음도 분명하다. 그럼에도 불구하고 우리나라 역사는 왕조실록을 중심으로한 조정의 기록은 풍부한 반면에 지방과 농촌의 기록은 지극히 비약한 것을 특징으로 하기 때문에 도작과 도작기술의 변천상을 알 수 있는 길 또한 지극히 제한되어 있었으며, 결국은 조선시대 초기부터 편찬되기 시작했던 농서들을 시대별로 구분하여 검토하고, 다시 종합적으로 비교고찰하면서 맥락을 더듬는 도리밖에 없다. 본 연구는 우리나라 도작기술이 여말까지 직수입 되었던 고대중국의 한전식 기술로 부터 어떻게 우리의 실정에 맞추어 성립될 수 있었고, 또한 이들로부터 독창성을 찾아 재정립된 기간은 무엇이며, 이들이 조선시대의 파란많은 내외란을 통하는 동안 어떻게 존속되고 변천해 왔으며, 이들 결과가 선말에 이르러 존속 발전하면서 치루어낸 역할이 시사하는 바가 무엇이었는지를 고찰하고자 하였다. The rice culture, the most representative farming in humid regions of East Asia, have been playing a decisive role in supplying finance and staple food of the nations. This situation must be formed with exchange of techniques and interests in the matter betwen China, Korea and Japan. Especially Korea was obligated to playa bridge role because of geographical conditions, thereby the situations of agriculture were repeatedly reclaimed, and recovered by changes of cultures during external aggression, and internal disturbances. Thus, it is obvious that development of rice culture and its techniques was being undaunted in Korea. Nevertheless, in history of Korea, the documents of the government on chronicles of the dynasty were plentiful, while they were very poor in countryside and rural communities, so that it is very hard to search the transition process of rice culture and its techniques. Finally, the faming books that were begun editing from the early Chosun dynasty are here divided chronically and examined, and also the interrelationships are compared and discussed here. The objectives of this study were to discuss the following questions? How were the dryfarming techniques, introduced from the ancient China by the end of Koryo dynasty, established to fit for our situations? What were the basis for reestablishment of the techniques with originality? How were they continued and changed through the internal and external wars in the Chosun dynasty? What were suggested from these continuously results by the end of the Chosun dynasty~ulcorner

주요 고농서를 통한 조성시대의 도작기술 발전 과정 영구 IV. 조선시대의 비곡종 및 경지관리

이숭겸,구자옥,이은웅,이홍석,Lee, Sung-Kyum,Guh, Ja-Ok,Lee, Eun-Woong,Lee, Hong-Suk 한국작물학회 1991 한국작물학회지 Vol.36 No.6

General procedures of seed preparation as conventional guide had been established in China before most of Korean literature documented them. ‘Chwijongbeob’ (method of seed select) was to select good quality of seeds and to discard the rest. In ‘Seonjongbeob’ (method of seed grading) although China employed only ‘Sooseonbeob’ (method of seed select with water), but seeds were selected in order of selection of seeds by winds, selection of seeds by sieve and selection of seed with water in Korea. As compared with the recent techniques, those methods were perfect techniques for selection of good quality seeds of rice, except for method of seed selection by salt water was developed. The method for measurement of seed moisture, and for measurement of melted snow, spoiled urine and extracted juice by boiling water with the bone of livestock were originated from ancient China. The farming books in Korea were more or less followed the above methods. However, these techniques were complicated and impractical interms of validity and rationality. Also, it is judged that these tchniques are more appropriate in dry areas and alkaline soil of China rather than in Korean conditions. The plowing is a work to begin farming, and is operated for air ventilation between atmosphere and earth. Also, this techniques was adopted in the farming books from the early to the late Chosun dynasty without changes. Fields were deep-plowed in the first, in fall (or in spring) and for cultivation, and were shallow -plowed in the second, in spring (or in summer) and in intertillage. The former was for water reserve and land preparation, and the later was for weed control with intertillage. However, plowing in fall which was different from fallowing in dry areas, was recommended in Korea (Jikseol). but was not practiced in Sejongsilrok. This was changed with time, and plowing for cultivation in Korea was interrelated with use of green manure crops, method of plowing of upseting plough, method of manure practice and sometimes dry plowing. In addition, until the 15th century method of using a kind of plowing-tool made of log as farm tools was created to support reclamation for enlargement of farm land in mountaineous and coastal areas. For desolate farm lands by many internal and external disturbances, one tried to recover yield ability by increasing labor productivity from the 17th or 18th century. To do this, ‘Banjongbeob’ (culture method by upset plowing weed control) and ‘Hwanubeob’(culture method by firing weed control) which were cultural methods of ancient China were readapoted but the results were not clearly informed. Also, the reality of those was reexamined in the end of the Chosun dynasty.

주요 고농서를 통한 조선시대의 도작기술 전개과정 연구 II. 고대중국의 도작기술 개요 탐색

이숭겸,구자옥,이은웅,이홍석,Lee, Sung-Kyum,Guh, Ja-Ok,Lee, Eun-Woong,Lee, Hong-Suk 한국작물학회 1991 한국작물학회지 Vol.36 No.3

The rice culture techniques of the ancient China which have played a key role directly and indirectly, in development of ancient farming and its techniques of Korea, were established before Christ in terms of dry-farming and the spirit of the farming-first principle. Especially techniques of rice culture were developed by cultivation methods for deep plowing, storage of water and preservation use of soil fertility. Therefore, the techniques of transplanting methods, seeding in rows, use of iron-made farming tools and dam construction for irrigation were advanced. And rice varieties were differentiated to avoid disasters or to supply of rice for various uses in many areas. Also, because north China was the origin of Chinese agriculture in which population density was low and flat land was wide that were the cradle of Chinese agriculture, ‘Hwayungsunubeob’(firing and drawning weed control method) and fallowing were quickened as intensive techniques of rice culture. In connection with the view of agricuture with 'the theory of the cosmic dual forces and the five primary substances' of Han Mooje and Chamwye scholars, the techniques of seeding and selection of crops were gradually developed. From ‘Jeminyosul’ of the 6th century to ‘Wangjongnongseo’ of the 14th century, the techniques of rice culture have been developed continuously and additively, but were not improved thereafter Won dynasty. From this point of time, the time of agriculture in the end of Koryo age and by ‘Nongsajiksul’ were initiated.

주요 고농서를 통한 조선시대의 도작기술 전개 과정 연구 VIII. 수확 저장 요령

이숭겸,구자옥,이은웅,이홍석,Lee, Sung-Kyum,Guh, Ja-Ok,Lee, Eun-Woong,Lee, Hong-Suk 한국작물학회 1992 한국작물학회지 Vol.37 No.3

Methods for harvesting and storage of rice were also originally introduced from the ancient China like other practices of agricultural techniques. Thus, optimum time or rice harvesting was adopted by appropriate draining to prevent the losses, and efficient tools were utilized for harvesting and manufacturing. In addition, our unique and original techniques for rice storage were learned and handed down, which prevented winds and rains, and allowed good ventilation. In the 15th and 16th centuries, treatment of smartweed extracts as emphasized to prevent insect damage for stored barley and rice cutting immediately at harvest was encouraged to prevent shattering of rice grains. In the 18th and 19th centuries, means for prevention of damages by water, insects and rats when grains stored in the field were suggested. Also, studies for ecology of various rice cultivars and storage techniques for a long period of time were necessarily emphasized to assume the optimum time of harvest regionally and to cooperatively work timely.

주요 고농서를 통한 조선시대의 도작기술 전개 과정 연구 Ⅵ. 시비기술

이숭겸,구자옥,이은웅,이홍석,Lee, Sung-Kyum,Guh, Ja-Ok,Lee, Eun-Woong,Lee, Hong-Suk 한국작물학회 1992 한국작물학회지 Vol.37 No.2

Different from 'Seyokwiryang' (歲易爲良 : fallowing as the best method) which was an agricultural technique of ancient China, fertilization of rice fields was already practiced in the end of Koryo age in Korea. 'Bunjongbeob'(糞種法 : fertilizer applicating method on seed) or 'Bunkwabeob' (糞科法 : fertilizer applicating method on each plant) was practiced before green manure of bean crops and 'Bunjeonbeob'(糞田法 : fertilizer practicing method on fields) were done. In the 15th century 'Dojeonbunjeonbeob'(稻田糞田法 : fertilizer applicating method on paddy) in 'Jikseol' was divided the materials to be used into the soil brought from another place, trees, grasses, and the manure. Also, it discribed the fertilization between first plowing and the second, and proper fertilization for particular soil conditions. In case of transplanting techniques, the fertilization practices were specified into nursery and rice fields, and restoration of organic matter was systemized by plowing for cultivation in the reclaimed areas. In the 17th century, through 'Jikseolbo'($\ulcorner$直說補$\lrcorner$), the habitual practice of Kyungsang province was systemized and 'Bunyangsool'(糞壤術 : technique of fertilization) of 'Jodoangkicheo' (早稻秧基處 : rearing fields of early-ripening rice) was completed. Specific things was the manufacturing and utilizing techniques of 'Bunhoe'(糞灰 : mixture of manure and ash), 'Yohoe'(尿灰 : mixture of urine and ash), and additional fertilizers. In the 18 to 19th century, the materials of fertilization were greatly enlarged to recover the waste lands and to support the reinforcement of soil fertility for increasing the system of two cropping a year. Also, 'Jeobunbeob'(貯糞法 : method of manure storage) and additional fertilization were emphasized, and use of wagons for it was emphasized to improve the theory of fertilization and working efficiency. As mentioned above, limitation of fertilizing materials was conquered by 'Dojeonbunyang'(稻田糞壤 : techniques of practicing fertilizers in paddy) and the system of additional fertilization was established. The fertilization methods were improved with 'Jeobunbeob' due to the theory and recognition necessary for high rates of fertilizers.

주요 고농서를 통한 조선시대의 도작기술 전개 과정 연구 V. 재배양식

이숭겸,구자옥,이은웅,이홍석,Lee, Sung-Kyum,Guh, Ja-Ok,Lee, Eun-Woong,Lee, Hong-Suk 한국작물학회 1992 한국작물학회지 Vol.37 No.1

The rice culture techniques included 'Jodosukyungbeob'(旱稻水耕法 : culture techniques of early-ripening paddy rice), 'Mandosukyungbeob' (晩稻水耕法) : culture techniques of late-Ripening paddy rice 'Handobeob'(旱稻<山稻>法 : culture techniques of upland rice), 'Myojongbeob'(苗種法 : culture techniques of paddy rice by transplanting), 'Kunangbeob'(乾秧法 : culture techniques of rice by transplanting which rears seeding in dry paddy) and 'Sudogunpanongbeob'(水稻乾播農法 : culture techniques of paddy rice seeding in dry field). Especially, 'Kunangbeob' and 'Sudogunpanongbeob' were originally developed in Korea as seen in 1600s(Kyoungje : 經濟) and early 1800s (Yoji : 要旨). In 'Jodosukyungbeob' it took 9 days for seed dipping, water-sprouting and prevent damage by birds, each for 3 days in China, but in Korea seed dipping in water took 3 days and the rest of the procedures were flexibly established. In matured soils, practices were fall plowing right after harvest, recognition of effective tillering and additional fertilization use of human manure, and stimulation of sprouting by lime application. The unique culture techniques adequate for Korean situations were practiced, which included weed control after draining accurately for 3 to 4 times, draining at mid season for improving wind and drought tolerance, rice harvesting at appropriate time for preventing grain shattering, and seeding in rows. 'Mandosukyungbeob' was improved techniques contrast to those of China, and the major contents were selection of proper varieties, good stand establishment by seeding high rates, induction of vigorous tillers, and adoption of 'Jokjongbeob'(足種法 : seeding method by foot). Also, one of the most prominent rice cultures by our ancestors was 'Kunpanongbeob' that was systemized form habitual practice of Pyongan Province. The unique technique actualized was 'Hando [旱稻(山稻)]' culture technique which was the combinations of 'Jokjongbeob', root stimulation method, and disaster-tolerant mixture cropping with adoptation of variety theory, although it was originated from China. The transplanting techniques has come before 'Jikseol'($\ulcorner$直說$\lrcorner$) and its merits were sufficiently realized. However, this method was basically prohibited from the early Chosun dynasty because extremely bad harvest was expected under drought conditions and insufficient conditions of water storage. But, it was permitted in the areas that contained water all the times and in case of large-scale farming especially. Most of rice culture was transplanted in the end of the Chosun dynasty because transplanting was continuously spreaded in the three southern provinces of Korea. Under these circumstances, transplanting technique was improved from the early to the end of the Chosun dynasty by weed control, fertilizing, water management, and quadratic transplanting. Based on these techniques, agricultural productivity was improved 5 times by that time. 'Kunpanongbeob' was created and developed properly for Korean conditions that is dry in early season and flooding in late season. This was successively developed and established into transplanting technique of nursery seedling.

주요 고농서를 통한 조성시대의 도작기술 발전 과정 연구 4 : 조선시대의 비곡종 및 경지관리

이숭겸,구자옥,이은웅,이홍석 韓國作物學會 1991 Korean journal of crop science Vol.36 No.6

비곡종법은 중국의 범승지서 부터 이미 확립 된 체계가 있어서 우리나라도 대부분 이를 인용하여 따르는 경향이 있었으며, 취종법은 비정상형의 종자를 선별해 버리고 우량종자를 선택하는 방식이었고, 선종법도 중국은 수선법을 따랐으나 우리나라는 풍선→절별→수선법을 창안발전시켰고, 최근에는 염수선이 첨가되었을 뿐, 모두가 완벽한 기술이었다. 종자흡습도 측정법이나 종자의 설즙 및 요분, 골즙처리법 등은 그 근간이 고대중국에서 유래된 것으로 우리나라의 농서들도 대체로 이를 인용하거나 다소의 가감을 통하여 수용하고 있었으나 이들 기술이 갖는 타당성은 합리성에 비하여 번거롭고 비현실적이며, 이는 우리나라 입지보다 중국의 한지, Alkali토양에서 오히려 수긍도가 높은 기술로 해석된다. 경지는 농사의 시작을 알리는 작업으로서 천지간에 기통하는 때를 기다려 시행한다는 고래 중국의 농업관을 거의 가감없이 선초부터 선말의 농서에까지 인용하고 있었다. 초경, 추경(혹은 춘경), 기경은 깊게하고 재경, 춘경(흑은 하경), 중경은 얕게 하며, 전자는 저수와 정지를 목적으로 하고 후자는 중경제초를 목적으로 하도록 기술분화 하고 있었다. 그러나 한전의 세역법에서 와 달리 상경하는 우리나라에서는 추경이 권장되고 있었으나 실제로 추경하지는 못하고 있었으며 이런 상황으로부터 시대를 경과하며 우리나라의 기경법은 녹비작물이용법, 엄경법, 분양법, 때에 따라서 건경법 등과 연계시켜 수행토록 종합처리법으로 발전을 이룩하였다. 뿐만 아니라 15세기까지는 새로운 산전과 연안지로의 경지확장을 위한 개간법을 지원하기 위한 농기구로서 윤목사용법이 창안되었고 17-18세기부터는 내외환으로 황무지화한 농경지를 대상으로 우선적으로 노동생산성을 제고시킴으로써 생산력까지 회복시키고자 하였으며, 이를 위하여 중국고대농법인 반종법과 소누법을 재인용 소개하여 왔으나 큰 성과는 불분명하며 드디어 선말에는 이에 대한 현실성을 평가하기에 이르렀다. General procedures of seed preparation as conventional guide had been established in China before most of Korean literature documented them. ‘Chwijongbeob’ (method of seed select) was to select good quality of seeds and to discard the rest. In ‘Seonjongbeob’ (method of seed grading) although China employed only ‘Sooseonbeob’ (method of seed select with water), but seeds were selected in order of selection of seeds by winds, selection of seeds by sieve and selection of seed with water in Korea. As compared with the recent techniques, those methods were perfect techniques for selection of good quality seeds of rice, except for method of seed selection by salt water was developed. The method for measurement of seed moisture, and for measurement of melted snow, spoiled urine and extracted juice by boiling water with the bone of livestock were originated from ancient China. The farming books in Korea were more or less followed the above methods. However, these techniques were complicated and impractical interms of validity and rationality. Also, it is judged that these tchniques are more appropriate in dry areas and alkaline soil of China rather than in Korean conditions. The plowing is a work to begin farming, and is operated for air ventilation between atmosphere and earth. Also, this techniques was adopted in the farming books from the early to the late Chosun dynasty without changes. Fields were deep-plowed in the first, in fall (or in spring) and for cultivation, and were shallow -plowed in the second, in spring (or in summer) and in intertillage. The former was for water reserve and land preparation, and the later was for weed control with intertillage. However, plowing in fall which was different from fallowing in dry areas, was recommended in Korea (Jikseol). but was not practiced in Sejongsilrok. This was changed with time, and plowing for cultivation in Korea was interrelated with use of green manure crops, method of plowing of upseting plough, method of manure practice and sometimes dry plowing. In addition, until the 15th century method of using a kind of plowing-tool made of log as farm tools was created to support reclamation for enlargement of farm land in mountaineous and coastal areas. For desolate farm lands by many internal and external disturbances, one tried to recover yield ability by increasing labor productivity from the 17th or 18th century. To do this, ‘Banjongbeob’ (culture method by upset plowing weed control) and ‘Hwanubeob’(culture method by firing weed control) which were cultural methods of ancient China were readapoted but the results were not clearly informed. Also, the reality of those was reexamined in the end of the Chosun dynasty.

주요 고농서를 통한 조선시대의 도작기술 전개과정 연구 3 : 조선시대의 벼 품종 분석

李崇謙,具滋玉,李殷雄,李弘䄷 韓國作物學會 1991 한국작물학회지 Vol.36 No.4

농사직설 단계에서는 품종보다는 품종군 또는 도종류로서의 조만, 치갱유, 또는 몇몇 지방 품종명이 소개되는 정도였으나, 우리나라의 도작기상이 ‘조한만수의’ 특징을 보일 뿐만 아니라 만하의 풍우 때문에 이들 재해를 회피하여 안전수확을 하는 것이 가장 중요하였으므로 15세기 이후의 도종발달은 조파조수집에 적응하고 내재해성을 갖는 쪽으로 서서히 진전되어 왔다. 시대경과에 따라 조도, 유망종, 유수색종, 내탈립종, 내풍성종, 내비성종의 분화와 이들의 정유율증대가 이루어져 왔음으로 알 수 있다. In Nongsajiksul, rice varieties were not appeared but varieties groups were introduced and divided according to growth periods, or 'Sun, Gang, Na'or introduced names of some of local varieties. However, the weather conditions for rice culture in Korea were characterized by 'early drought and late flooding', and winds and rains in summer, so that rice safe harvest by avoiding these disasters was the most important. Thus, development of rice varieties after the 15th century has gradually been adapted for ‘early-seeding and early-harvesting’, and for disaster tolerance. With time, rice varieties, which were early maturing, had awned, had color on panicles, had tolerance for grain shattering, had tolerance for winds, and had good responses to fertilizers, were grown in large areas.rown in large areas.

主要 古農書를 通한 朝鮮時代의 稻作技術 展開 過程 硏究

李崇謙,具滋玉,李殷雄,李弘䄷 한국작물학회 1991 한국작물학회지 Vol.36 No.3

主要 古農書를 通한 朝鮮時代의 稻作技術 展開過程 研究

李崇謙,具滋玉,李殷雄,李弘䄷 한국작물학회 1992 한국작물학회지 Vol.37 No.1